Meghan Hodges
The history of air pollution can be traced back to the earliest ancestors of humans, with increasing population sizes leading to more bacteria and disease. During the Middle Ages, diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever broke out across Europe due to unsanitary conditions. The threat of air pollution to human health has been recognised since the time of Hippocrates, around 400 BC, with written accounts of air pollution spanning the next two millennia. While the identity of harmful gases and particles was largely unknown, early societies attempted to regulate emissions through legislation. The development of the industrial revolution in the 1700s and 1800s, with its associated factories and industrial processes, is often associated with the beginning of air pollution. However, new research using ice cores suggests that humans have been polluting the atmosphere with lead for at least 2,000 years. For example, ice cores from the Quelccaya Ice Cap in Peru indicate that South American metallurgy, including Inca activities around 1480, contributed to atmospheric pollution. The Spanish conquest of South America in the 16th century further increased pollution levels as a result of their mining and metallurgy practices.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of first atmospheric pollution | 2000 years ago |
| Date of first recognition of air pollution as a threat to human health | c. 400 BC |
| Date of first recognition of water pollution as a threat to human health | 1800s |
| Date of first sewage system in the United States | 1850s |
| Date of first major air pollution legislation in the United States | 1955 |
| Date of first major water pollution legislation in the United States | 1972 |
| Date of first major air pollution legislation worldwide | 1979 |
| Date of Industrial Revolution | 1700s-1800s |
| Date of first industrial-scale toxic metal air pollution | 16th century |
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What You'll Learn
Air pollution from smelting and mining
The history of air pollution can be traced back to the earliest human ancestors, with the emergence of diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever in the Middle Ages, caused by unsanitary living conditions. However, the industrialisation and urbanisation of the 19th century brought about a new era of pollution, with waste from factories and industries becoming a pressing issue in Europe and the United States. This period witnessed the widespread burning of coal, leading to episodes of "smog" in cities, which had devastating consequences for human health.
The Industrial Revolution, marked by the transition to mechanised factory systems and increased coal consumption, further exacerbated air pollution. Global trade intensified the problem, spreading it across the globe. The contamination of the atmosphere was no longer confined to cities but became a cross-country concern.
Mining and smelting have been significant contributors to air pollution throughout history, with South America's rich history of metallurgy providing evidence of ancient pollution. The Inca Empire's metallurgical activities, including smelting metal ores in wind-driven furnaces called huayras, left traces of pollution in the ice core of Quelccaya, dating back to around 1480.
Subsequently, the Spanish conquest of South America in the 16th century marked a pivotal moment in the history of air pollution. The Spanish conquistadors, led by Francisco Pizarro, took over the Inca mines and introduced large-scale silver smelting. This led to the release of clouds of lead dust over the Andes, making them the world's first industrial-scale toxic metal air polluters.
Today, metal mining remains one of the biggest sources of air pollution globally. Smelting, in particular, releases arsenic and other toxins into the atmosphere, along with greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). Additionally, mining activities generate waste, including tailings and waste rock dumps, which contain toxic substances and heavy metals that can contaminate the air, soil, and groundwater. Atmospheric dust and particulates are also released during blasting, excavation, and mineral transportation processes.
To mitigate the environmental and health impacts of mining and smelting, there is a growing emphasis on enhancing environmental standards and regulations. Artificial intelligence and machine learning are being leveraged for predictive modelling and assessing pollution risks. Sustainable mining practices and additional research on remediation methods for soil pollution caused by heavy metals are also crucial areas of focus.
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Industrial Revolution and factory emissions
Pollution is not a new phenomenon. In fact, it has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. As populations grew, more bacteria and diseases developed, leading to unsanitary conditions that caused epidemics such as the Black Death in 1347.
The Industrial Revolution, which occurred between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, was a period of social and economic transformation, with countries like Britain shifting from agrarian societies to industrial ones. This revolution was marked by the advent of manufacturing based on heavy industrial machinery, such as steam power, which allowed for a semi-automated factory system and mass production. The Industrial Revolution set the stage for large-scale carbon emissions, with Britain, in particular, increasing its use of coal as a fuel source. Coal-powered factories, ships, trains, and homes, becoming a key factor in the Industrial Revolution and leading to a substantial increase in CO2 emissions.
The environmental consequences of the Industrial Revolution were severe and are still felt today. Urban areas became overcrowded, with poor sanitation and air quality leading to serious public health issues. Thick smog, largely from coal-fired factories and residential heating, darkened the skies over cities like London and New York, resulting in many deaths. Rivers like the Thames became dumping grounds for industrial waste.
The Industrial Revolution established a dependency on coal and other natural resources that continue to dominate our energy landscape. As industries expanded, coal became the primary energy source, and global trade turned air pollution into one of the harshest consequences of industrial growth worldwide. Europe and North America, the continents that first experienced rapid industrial growth, suffered the majority of the adverse effects of emissions for most of the second half of the twentieth century.
By the 1980s, there was compelling evidence that human-induced emissions were driving global temperature increases, and in the early 1990s, the link between human activities and climate change was widely accepted. Climate change is now recognized as a critical challenge driven by human activities, with global GHG emissions continuing to rise.
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Ancient metallurgy in South America
Metallurgy in ancient South America, specifically the Andean region, involved the hammering and shaping of gold and native copper into intricate objects, particularly ornaments. The earliest gold work has been dated to 2155–1936 BC, and the earliest copper work to 1432–1132 BC. By 1410–1090 BC, gilding was practiced in coastal Peru.
The recent discovery of an anthropomorphic copper mask in northwest Argentina suggests that the southern Andes was also a centre of early metalworking. The mask, dating back 3000 years, was found in a funerary context at Bordo Marcial in the Cajón Valley, indicating the importance of copper metallurgy in the region.
In pre-Columbian America, metalworking in South America seems to have developed independently from that of Mesoamerica, which only appears around 800 CE. Fine metals were valued in both regions, but for different reasons. In South America, metals were primarily used for adornments and status objects, while in Mesoamerica, they were used for functional objects like weapons and utensils.
The Inca civilisation, which rose in the Andean region, continued to use stone tools alongside some bronze items. They gathered metal ore from outcrops or exposed veins and smelted it in primitive wind-driven furnaces called huayra. Evidence of pollution from Inca metallurgy can be found in the Quelccaya ice core, with increases in lead levels dating to around 1480, and later to 1540 during the Spanish colonial period.
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19th-century smog and its health impacts
The 19th century saw the emergence of "smog"—a term coined in the early 20th century, referring to the combination of smoke and fog. This phenomenon was particularly prevalent in cities like London, which experienced rapid industrial growth during this period. The burning of coal in factories and homes, along with the increase in domestic fires and factory furnaces, contributed to the dense smoke and pollution that characterised 19th-century smog.
The health impacts of 19th-century smog were significant. Urban centres, such as London, had much higher mortality rates than rural areas. The fog-laden atmosphere, vividly described in the novels of Charles Dickens and Arthur Conan Doyle, could last for up to a week, and fog-related deaths were common. Gravestones from the early 19th century bore witness to the deadly effects of smog.
While it is challenging to quantify the exact health consequences of 19th-century smog, recent studies have provided valuable insights. Research by Beach and Hanlon (2016) found a strong correlation between industrial coal-use and local death rates, particularly among children under five. Additionally, the average adult heights in localities with high pollution levels were almost an inch shorter than in less polluted areas, indicating the detrimental effects of pollution on health and development.
The Great Smog of London in 1952, a culmination of industrial pollution and high-pressure weather conditions, resulted in thousands of deaths and brought the city to a standstill. This event marked a turning point, prompting Parliament to pass the Clean Air Act, which restricted coal burning and established smoke-free areas.
While the 19th century laid the groundwork for understanding and addressing pollution, it was not until the mid-20th century that significant legislative action was taken to combat air pollution and improve public health in Britain and other industrialised nations.
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Modern air quality in the Global South
The history of human-caused pollution goes back centuries, with the Industrial Revolution marking a significant turning point. The transition to new manufacturing processes, increased coal consumption, and industrialization led to unprecedented levels of air pollution. While Europe and North America were the first to experience these changes, the Global South is now facing the harshest consequences.
Today, the Global South is the epicenter of poor air quality, with cities in this region being among the most polluted in the world. The problem is not limited to outdoor air pollution, as indoor air quality (IAQ) is also a significant concern, especially in the Global South. People in the Global South face structural and financial barriers, limited access to cleaner energy alternatives, and traditional practices that contribute to indoor air pollution. Over 3 billion people in low- and middle-income countries rely on solid fuels such as wood, charcoal, and coal for cooking and heating, which are highly polluting when burned indoors.
The impact of poor air quality in the Global South is devastating, with the Air Quality of Life Index (AQLI) reporting that inhabitants of Bangladesh live almost seven years less, those in India live five years less, and those in the Democratic Republic of Congo live three years less due to air pollution. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 94% of the world's population breathes air that does not meet quality standards, and the situation is even more dire in the Global South. For example, the concentration of particles in New Delhi is 25 times higher than WHO guidelines, while it is only 2.5 times higher in Europe.
The inequality between the Global North and South in tackling this issue is evident. The Global North, having contributed significantly to pollution over the years, now needs to assist the Global South in transitioning to renewable energies and less-polluting technologies. Experts warn that if the problem is not addressed, the number of deaths caused by outdoor air pollution is expected to increase by over 50% by 2050.
While progress is being made, it is not happening fast enough. Urgent and coordinated action is required to improve indoor air quality in the Global South, including providing access to cleaner energy, improving building infrastructure, and increasing public awareness. Regulatory focus and funding are also necessary to address this silent public health emergency.
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Frequently asked questions
Humans have been polluting the atmosphere for at least 2,000 years, with lead levels from the Industrial Revolution of the 1700s and 1800s being comparable to those of the Roman occupation of Britain.
Air pollution has been recognised as a threat to human health since the time of Hippocrates, around 400 BC. Early societies also recognised the wider environmental threat of air pollution, but the identity of gases and particles remained unknown.
The first major modern environmental legislation was the Clean Air Act of 1956, prompted by the Great Smog of 1952 in London, which killed at least 4,000 people. However, early attempts to regulate emissions date back to the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries.
