Water Pollution: The Fight To Fix It

Water pollution has been a pressing issue for centuries, with humans unknowingly contaminating drinking water sources with raw sewage as early as the 1800s, leading to diseases such as cholera and typhoid. The Industrial Revolution further intensified water pollution as factories began releasing pollutants directly into rivers and streams. By the mid-1940s, outbreaks of waterborne diseases, degradation of fishing and recreational waters, and rapid wartime industrial development prompted a re-evaluation of water pollution control. The first major US law to address water pollution was the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which was later amended and became known as the Clean Water Act in 1972. This legislation provided funding for improving sewage treatment plants and set limits on industrial discharges into water bodies. The Clean Water Act was a significant step towards addressing water pollution in the United States, and it has since undergone various revisions and been supplemented by additional legislation to further reduce pollution and protect water quality.

The Industrial Revolution's impact

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, marked a period of significant progress and transformation in society. However, it also had a profound impact on the environment, particularly in terms of water pollution.

As factories and industries flourished, they released a multitude of pollutants directly into rivers and streams. This included chemical waste, sulfuric acid, soda ash, muriatic acid, limes, dyes, wood pulp, and animal byproducts from industrial mills. The Tawe River in Wales, for example, suffered from gross industrial contamination due to various factors, including alkali works and copper works. The Mersey Basin also experienced severe pollution for over 200 years due to the development of the cotton and chemical industries.

The issue of water pollution was not limited to specific regions but became a widespread problem across the United States and Europe. By the mid-19th century, cities like Chicago had begun to address wastewater treatment by constructing major sewage systems. However, as industrialization intensified during the 19th century, the complexity and variety of pollutants increased as well.

It wasn't until the latter half of the 20th century that a more concerted effort was made to tackle water pollution. In 1969, a significant event occurred when the Cuyahoga River in Ohio caught fire due to chemical waste, sparking widespread environmental awareness and activism. This incident played a pivotal role in the creation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (commonly known as the Clean Water Act) in 1972, which provided funding for improving sewage treatment plants and set limits on industrial discharges into the water.

The Clean Water Act was a turning point in addressing water pollution, and it was followed by various other pieces of anti-pollution legislation. While these efforts have led to improvements in water quality, water pollution remains a pressing issue today. The Environmental News Service reported in 2006 that over 40% of American waterways were still unsafe for swimming and fishing, and industrial waste continues to contaminate water sources, particularly in developing nations.

Early attempts at regulation

By the 1800s, the link between unsanitary living conditions, water contamination, and disease epidemics was beginning to be understood. This awareness prompted cities in the US and Europe to take measures to control waste and garbage. In the mid-1850s, Chicago built the first major sewage system in the United States to treat wastewater, and other cities soon followed suit. However, as cities became more populated and industrialised towards the end of the 19th century, a new kind of pollution emerged: industrial waste from factories.

In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the gross industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales, noting that it was polluted by "alkali works, copper works, sulfuric acid liquid, sulfate of iron from tin-plate works, and by slag, cinders and small coal." Around the same time, industrial chemicals and wastes contaminated waters in the US Northeast, including sulfuric acid, soda ash, muriatic acid, limes, dyes, wood pulp, and animal byproducts from industrial mills.

In the mid-1940s, outbreaks of waterborne diseases, degradation of fishing and recreational waters, coupled with rapid wartime industrial development and population growth, prompted a new appraisal of water pollution control. While various government agencies had jurisdiction over waste disposal, public health, or water, attempts to address pollution concerns in a planned manner were unsuccessful. The situation was complicated by differing interpretations of laws and overlapping authority among local, state, and federal regulatory agencies, which hampered new industrial developments.

In 1948, the basis of the Clean Water Act (CWA) was enacted under the name of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. However, it was significantly reorganised and expanded in 1972, with "Clean Water Act" becoming the common name with amendments in the same year. The CWA established the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into US waters and set quality standards for surface waters. It made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant from a point source into navigable waters without a permit, with the EPA's National Pollutent Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program controlling discharges. The initial permits issued in the 1970s and early 1980s focused on POTWs and industrial wastewater.

In 1949, the California Assembly Committee on Water Pollution recognised that existing laws and procedures were often unreasonable. The committee warned that California's population and industrial growth would exhaust water supplies, and sweeping changes in the state's approach to water pollution control and water quality were recommended. As a result, the California Legislature enacted the Dickey Water Pollution Act, which created a State Water Pollution Control Board consisting of gubernatorial appointees and state officials. The Dickey Act also established nine Regional Water Pollution Control Boards located in each of the major California watersheds, with responsibility for overseeing and enforcing the state's pollution abatement program.

The Clean Water Act

In the mid-1940s, water-borne diseases, the degradation of fishing and recreational waters, rapid war-time industrial development, and population growth prompted a new appraisal of water pollution control. While many government agencies had varying degrees of jurisdiction over waste disposal, public health, or water, attempts to address new pollution concerns in a planned manner were unsuccessful.

In 1948, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act became the first major US law to address water pollution. However, it was not until the 1960s and 1970s, with the environmental movement, that public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution led to sweeping amendments. The Clean Water Act (CWA) was established in 1972 to address the significant pollution issues caused by industrial waste and other pollutants being discharged into rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water.

Grassroots activism

Grassroots movements have been particularly effective in demanding government accountability and pushing for equitable water governance. In the United States, the Clean Water Action organization has been at the forefront of grassroots efforts, advocating for strong clean water laws, protecting water sources from drilling and fracking, and addressing toxic chemicals and environmental justice issues. Similarly, the Thirst Project, with its presence in multiple countries, raises awareness about water-related issues and focuses on building long-lasting hand pump wells.

In fragile states with weak social contracts, grassroots movements can be a powerful force for change. For instance, in 2000, thousands of Bolivians united to reject water privatization and rate hikes in what became known as the "Cochabamba Water War." This movement demonstrated the ability of grassroots activism to address water issues alongside deeper societal inequities and conflicts.

To maintain their effectiveness, grassroots movements must adapt their strategic thinking and embrace nonviolent action. By identifying responsible actors, such as governments or private sectors, and engaging with them peacefully, these movements can avoid becoming targets of violent state repression and increase their chances of achieving their goals. Additionally, grassroots organizations can empower communities by providing them with the knowledge and tools necessary to drive change at the household level, promoting better hygiene, sanitation, and sustainable water management practices.

International cooperation

The EU's Water4All initiative is a joint effort between the European Commission, EU Member States, and non-EU partnering countries. It aims to promote the sustainable use of water resources and address water scarcity, pollution, and emerging contaminants. The EU has also joined the Freshwater Challenge, aiming to restore degraded rivers and wetlands by 2030. Additionally, the EU advocates for the full implementation of the Water Action Agenda (WAA) and enhancing water cooperation for security, stability, and peace.

Another example of international cooperation is the work of nonprofit organizations operating globally. These organizations play a crucial role in providing clean water solutions and advocating for water accessibility. For instance, Generosity.org has completed over 800 water wells in 20 different nations, while Pure Water for the World works in Central America and the Caribbean to provide education and resources for sustainable water, hygiene, and sanitation practices. Hope of Life International, a faith-based organization, operates in Guatemala, providing water filters and sponsoring individuals to prevent waterborne diseases. Splash, a water organization serving disadvantaged cities, collaborates with local governments and businesses to educate children about hygiene and proper sanitation maintenance.

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