Kiera Jefferson
India has long struggled with air pollution, which has been a matter of concern for many decades. In 2018, India was declared the most polluted country in the world, with 140 million people breathing air that is 10 times or more over the WHO safe limit. The main sources of India's air pollution include industrial and vehicular emissions, construction, waste burning, and the use of wood and biomass for cooking and heating in low-income and rural households. The country's rapid population growth, industrialization, and urbanization have all contributed to the worsening air quality. Despite the implementation of various measures and regulations, such as the National Clean Air Programme launched in 2019, India continues to battle severe air pollution and its associated health impacts.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year when pollution became a serious concern | 2018 |
| Year when pollution-related laws were passed | 1981, 1985, 2000 |
| Year when pollution-related initiatives were launched | 2015, 2019 |
| Year when the number of vehicles on roads increased rapidly | 2020 |
| Year when the COVID-19 lockdown caused a drop in PM pollution | 2020 |
| Year when India had a population of 440 million | 1961 |
| Year when India's forest coverage increased | 1992 |
| Year when India was ranked as the most polluted country | 2018 |
| Year when India's air quality worsened compared to China | 2016 |
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What You'll Learn
Pollution sources: industrial emissions, vehicles, biomass burning, etc
India's pollution problem is a serious environmental issue. In 2019, 21 of the 30 most polluted cities in the world were in India. A study based on 2016 data revealed that at least 140 million people in India breathe air that is ten times or more over the WHO safe limit. The main contributors to India's particulate air pollution include industrial and vehicular emissions, construction dust and debris, dependence on thermal power for electricity, waste burning, and the use of wood and dung for cooking and heating.
Industrial Emissions
More than half of India's air pollution (51%) is caused by industrial pollution. This includes power plant emissions and tyre pyrolysis plants, which recycle rubber tyres into low-grade oil and carbon black. These plants are widespread in India and contribute to severe air pollution and health problems.
Vehicles
Vehicular emissions account for 27% of India's air pollution. In addition to emissions from vehicles running on fuel, some Indian taxis and auto-rickshaws run on adulterated fuel blends, which increase emissions of harmful pollutants and worsen urban air pollution. Financial incentives arising from differential taxes are generally the primary cause of fuel adulteration. Traffic congestion, which is severe in India's cities and towns, also contributes to higher emissions, as vehicles burn fuel inefficiently and pollute more at low speeds.
Biomass Burning
In rural areas, much of the pollution stems from biomass burning for cooking and keeping warm. Fuelwood and biomass cakes are used for cooking and heating in over 100 million Indian households. The burning of biomass fuels releases carbon-containing gases that are much more reactive than cleaner fuels. The World Health Organization estimates that 300,000 to 400,000 people die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning in India due to biomass burning and the use of traditional cookstoves.
Crop Burning
Crop residue burning in agriculture fields is a major source of smoke, smog, and particulate pollution in autumn and spring months. It is a cheaper alternative to mechanical tilling, but it contributes significantly to India's air pollution, accounting for 17% of the total.
Other Sources
Other sources of pollution in India include construction dust and debris, waste burning, and the use of thermal power for electricity.
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Pollution levels: India's most polluted cities
India's struggle with pollution can be linked to its population growth. The country's population has increased by 200% in the last six decades, from 440 million in 1961 to an estimated 1.38 billion in 2022. This has led to increased demands on resources, including commercial amenities, electricity, industrial output, mobility, roads, healthcare, schools, and construction.
While India has a low per capita emission of greenhouse gases, it is the third-largest producer of greenhouse gases as a country, after China and the United States. The main contributors to India's particulate air pollution are industrial and vehicular emissions, construction dust and debris, thermal power for electricity, waste burning, and the use of wood and dung for cooking and heating in low-income and rural households.
In 2019, India had 21 of the world's 30 most polluted cities. A study based on 2016 data found that at least 140 million people in India breathe air that is 10 times or more over the WHO safe limit. The World Health Organization also reported that India has 14 of the 15 most polluted cities in the world in terms of PM 2.5 concentrations. The cities with the highest levels of PM2.5 pollutants are Delhi, Patna, Agra, Muzaffarpur, Srinagar, Gurgaon, Jaipur, Patiala, and Jodhpur. Delhi has been ranked as the most polluted city in India in 2024, with PM2.5 levels over 15 times higher than the WHO-recommended limit.
Other Indian cities with very high levels of PM2.5 pollutants include Patna, Agra, Muzaffarpur, Srinagar, Gurgaon, Jaipur, Patiala, and Jodhpur. Delhi's air quality is especially poor during the winter months, with lower mixing heights and more calm conditions leading to higher levels of particulates in the air. The city's air quality improves with the onset of the monsoon season, as rainfall helps to scrub the air of pollutants.
To address the issue of air pollution, India's Central Pollution Control Board routinely monitors four air pollutants: sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), suspended particulate matter (SPM), and respirable particulate matter (PM10). These pollutants are targeted for regular monitoring at 308 operating stations in 115 cities/towns across 25 states and 4 Union Territories. Despite these efforts, India's air quality continues to worsen, with the country's economic reforms in the 1990s leading to a rapid increase in the number of vehicles on the roads and their usage, as well as increased industrialization.
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Pollution impact: health, environment, and economic effects
India faces pollution challenges in air, land, water, and soil resources, with regional challenges of radiation and urban challenges of noise pollution. Pollution in India has had a significant impact on the health of its citizens, the environment, and the economy.
Health Effects
Air pollution is a major cause of premature death and disease in India, and it is the largest environmental health threat in the country. Studies have shown that short-term and long-term exposure to air pollution are associated with disease burden and mortality. According to the World Health Organization, 300,000 to 400,000 people die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning in India due to the use of biomass-burning cookstoves. A 2013 study on non-smokers found that Indians have 30% weaker lung function than Europeans. Air pollution also contributes to the premature deaths of 2 million Indians every year, with industrial pollution and vehicle emissions being the main contributors. Diseases attributable to air pollution also adversely affect economic growth through reduced productivity and increased healthcare expenditures.
Environmental Effects
The high volumes of industrial effluents and chemical runoff from modern agricultural activities have had a major impact on India's water resources, especially rivers. The Ganges River, for example, is highly polluted due to its wide geographic spread and its centrality in the region's religious activities. The Yamuna River, which runs through Delhi, has very low oxygen content and high toxicity due to industrial effluents. Certain agricultural practices, such as the overuse of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, have also led to lower soil fertility and polluted groundwater reserves. Large-scale crop residue burning in agriculture fields contributes to smoke, smog, and particulate pollution, with India being the third-largest producer of greenhouse gases.
Economic Effects
The high burden of death and disease due to air pollution has a substantial adverse economic impact on India through the loss of output and reduced productivity. In 2019, air pollution was estimated to have caused economic losses of US$28.8 billion in India, with a total loss of $36.8 billion, which was 1.36% of India's gross domestic product (GDP). This economic loss varied across states, with the lowest per-capita GDP states experiencing the highest loss as a proportion of state GDP. Delhi had the highest per-capita economic loss due to air pollution in 2019. The adverse effects of air pollution on health and the economy highlight the importance of implementing state-specific strategies to reduce pollution and improve the health and economic well-being of the population.
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Pollution control: government initiatives and challenges
India has a long history of pollution, with the quality of its environment worsening between 1947 and 1990. Since then, the country has made efforts to improve its environmental conditions, with some success. For instance, between 1992 and 2010, forest coverage increased by over 4 million hectares, a 7% increase. However, India still faces significant challenges in controlling pollution, and its air pollution levels remain dangerously high.
Government Initiatives
The Indian government has introduced various measures to tackle pollution. In 1981, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was passed to regulate air pollution. In 1985, the Ministry of Environment and Forests was established as the central administrative organisation for regulating and ensuring environmental protection. The government has also enacted Noise Pollution (Regulation & Control) Rules in 2000.
In 2015, the National Air Quality Index was launched in collaboration with IIT Kanpur. Two years later, the Central Pollution Control Board issued a comprehensive set of directions for the implementation of 42 measures to mitigate air pollution in major cities. These measures included controlling vehicular emissions, mitigating road dust, and addressing biomass/municipal solid waste burning, industrial pollution, and construction activities.
In 2019, India launched the National Clean Air Programme, targeting a 20-30% reduction in PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations by 2024. The same year, IIT Bombay and the McKelvey School of Engineering of Washington University in St. Louis launched the Aerosol and Air Quality Research Facility to study air pollution in India.
Other initiatives include the India Lighthouse project, which facilitates the exchange of expertise between Indian and international experts to develop India-specific practices for managing air pollution. The World Bank has also been aiding India in Air Quality Management through a phased strategy, focusing on enhancing knowledge, building capacity, and mobilising finance for more effective government programs.
Challenges
Despite these initiatives, India continues to face challenges in controlling pollution. One major challenge is the lack of stringent air pollution standards, with the country relying on country-specific guidelines that are often higher than WHO-recommended levels. This has resulted in air pollution levels in India being consistently higher than the WHO's safe limits.
Rapid urbanisation has also led to increased pollution levels due to higher energy consumption, vehicular traffic, and industrial activities concentrated in urban centres. Socio-economic factors, such as poverty and lack of access to clean energy sources, particularly in rural areas, further exacerbate the problem.
Additionally, there is a lack of enforcement of environmental regulations, with state-run enterprises often ignoring regulations and state governments regarding them as mere paperwork formalities. This has resulted in increasing air emissions, worsening water pollution, and decreasing forest cover.
The multi-sectoral and multi-jurisdictional nature of air pollution in India also poses a challenge, requiring coordination between various states and the adoption of an "airshed" approach that considers the flow of air across large geographic areas. Standardising tools and data sets across the country is crucial for effective pollution control strategies.
Furthermore, tyre pyrolysis plants, which recycle rubber tyres into low-grade oil and carbon black, are widespread in India and contribute significantly to air pollution and health issues. Adulteration of fuel blends by public transport drivers to cut costs also worsens urban air pollution.
Combating air pollution requires a collaborative effort from the government, industries, civil societies, and the public. While India has initiated several measures and developed beneficial policies and regulations, effective implementation and enforcement remain critical challenges.
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Population growth: impact on pollution demands
India's population has been growing rapidly, with a 200% increase in the six decades between 1961 and 2022. This population growth has had a significant impact on pollution demands in the country. The expanding population has resulted in an increased need for commercial amenities, electricity, industrial output, mobility, roads, healthcare, schools, and construction.
One of the main consequences of population growth on pollution is the intensification of agriculture. With a growing population, there is a higher demand for food, which leads to the expansion and intensification of agricultural practices. This includes the use of more land for farming, as well as the intensification of existing farmland through practices such as the use of pesticides and fertilizers, which can contribute to soil erosion and degradation.
Additionally, population growth has contributed to the uncontrolled growth of urbanization and industrialization. As more people migrate to cities in search of employment and better opportunities, urban areas expand, often at the cost of natural habitats and green spaces. This urbanization also leads to an increase in industrial activities, with more factories and manufacturing units being set up to meet the demands of the growing population. The emissions from these industrial activities contribute significantly to air pollution, with industrial pollution accounting for 51% of India's air pollution.
Moreover, population growth has exerted pressure on finite natural resources, particularly water. With a larger population, the demand for water increases, leading to water scarcity and the over-extraction of groundwater. This, coupled with poor waste management practices, results in water pollution, further exacerbating the issue.
The growing population has also resulted in an increase in energy production and consumption. India's energy demands have risen to meet the needs of a larger population, with more energy required for electricity, transportation, and industrial activities. This has led to an increase in the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and diesel, which are major contributors to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
While population growth has had a significant impact on pollution demands, it is important to note that economic growth and development have also played a crucial role. As India's economy has grown, so has its industrialization, urbanization, and energy consumption, contributing to pollution. However, economic growth has also provided opportunities for technological advancements and better pollution control measures, which can help mitigate the impacts of population growth on the environment.
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Frequently asked questions
Air pollution has been a concern in India for several decades, but it has become increasingly worse since the 1960s due to a 200% population increase, leading to demands in commercial amenities, electricity, industrial output, mobility, roads, healthcare, schools, and construction.
The main contributors to India's particulate air pollution include industrial and vehicular emissions, construction dust and debris, dependence on thermal power for electricity, waste burning, and the use of wood and dung for cooking and heating in low-income and rural households.
The Indian government has introduced various initiatives to combat pollution, including the National Clean Air Programme launched in 2019, which aims to reduce PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations by 20-30% by 2024. The government has also partnered with academic institutions to study and address air pollution, such as the Aerosol and Air Quality Research Facility launched in 2019 by IIT Bombay and the McKelvey School of Engineering of Washington University in St. Louis.
