The History Of China's Water Pollution

Water pollution in China has been an ongoing issue for decades, with a 2006 report by the Chinese Embassy in the UK stating that approximately 300 million people nationwide lacked access to clean water. The country's rapid economic development, industrialization, and urbanization have resulted in widespread water pollution, with inadequate investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure. China's water pollution is caused by various factors, including industrial wastewater discharge, domestic sewage, agricultural runoff, and the use of hazardous pesticides and fertilizers. These issues have led to severe water scarcity and public health concerns, with access to safe drinking water being a significant challenge. While China has made efforts to improve water quality, the complex nature of the problem, coupled with the need to balance economic growth and environmental protection, makes it a difficult issue to address.

Water scarcity and economic development

Water scarcity has emerged as a critical challenge to China's economic development, threatening the integrity of its industrial base. The country's rapid socioeconomic development and urbanization over the past four decades have resulted in a complex water environment situation, with water safety becoming a significant public health issue. China's water resources are estimated at 2,000 cubic meters per capita, only a quarter of the global average. Its large and diverse geography also contributes to an uneven distribution of water, with southern and eastern regions experiencing abundant rainfall, while the north and west face droughts and water scarcity.

China's economic growth has been characterized as "breakneck," and its industrialization and agricultural development have led to severe pollution of the aquatic environment. This pollution exacerbates water scarcity, with industrial wastewater, domestic sewage, agricultural pesticides, and manure contaminating surface and groundwater sources. The health impact of water safety is a pressing issue, as inadequate water quality affects water usability and poses risks to public health, including the development and spread of zoonotic diseases.

The country's electricity consumption is highly water-intensive, with its reliance on coal-fired plants for thermal power and water-intensive industries such as steelmaking and chemical production contributing to high water usage. Climate change is expected to worsen China's water scarcity and supply volatility, impacting the country's economic growth and political stability.

To address water scarcity, China has implemented projects like the South-North water diversion and the Three Gorges Dam, which aim to balance water supply and demand between the north and south. However, these projects have both economic, social, and environmental costs and benefits, and it is challenging to weigh their potential impacts. While Beijing has emphasized the need for high-quality and water-efficient growth, implementing structural reforms in a water-intensive economy is a complex task.

China's water challenges have global implications, and the health of the global economy is tied to the vibrancy of the Chinese economy. As the world's biggest water user, accounting for 13% of global freshwater consumption, China's water scarcity and economic development trajectory will have far-reaching consequences.

Industrial and agricultural pollution

China's water pollution problem has been exacerbated by the dramatic economic development and industrialization of the country in recent decades. The scale, intensity, and speed of industrialization have placed significant stress on the country's natural resources, including water. The population increase since the 1950s, coupled with rapid industrial development and urbanization since the 1980s, have resulted in a drastic increase in water demand for agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses, while the physical water supply has remained relatively unchanged.

Industrial pollution has been a significant contributor to China's water pollution crisis. Industrial wastewater, sewage treatment plants, and municipal wastewaters have contaminated surface water and groundwater sources over the past several decades. The rapid industrialization has led to increased pollutant discharges, with industrial sources accounting for a significant proportion of the problem. Poor management practices and regulation enforcement have further exacerbated the issue.

Agricultural pollution is another critical component of China's water pollution crisis. Agriculture is a vital industry in China, employing over 300 million farmers and feeding a rapidly growing nation. The overuse of fertilizers and pesticides has led to agricultural non-point source pollution, where pollutants are carried into water bodies through rainfall and snowmelt. According to a government study, agriculture is responsible for 43.7% of the nation's chemical oxygen demand, 67% of phosphorus discharges, and 57% of nitrogen discharges. Livestock breeding and aquaculture have also been identified as major sources of pollution.

The Chinese government has recognized the severity of the water pollution crisis and is working towards addressing the issue. Policy measures, institutional reforms, and environmental safeguards are being implemented to accelerate the improvement of surface water quality. The government has also committed to introducing measures to enhance the efficiency of pesticide and fertilizer use and promote ecological agriculture. However, there is skepticism among environmental groups regarding the effectiveness of these measures, and the agriculture ministry has been accused of resisting the release of reports that highlight the extent of agricultural pollution.

Drinking water safety

China's drinking water safety is a complex issue, closely tied to public health and the country's rapid socioeconomic development and urbanization over the past few decades. The country's water environment has become increasingly challenging, with water scarcity, uneven distribution of water resources, and poor water quality being prevalent issues.

China's water resources are estimated at 2,000 cubic meters per capita, only a quarter of the world's average. The country faces a water shortage, exacerbated by pollution from industrial wastewater, domestic sewage, agricultural pesticides, and manure. This pollution has contaminated surface and groundwater, with only a fraction of the country's rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater meeting the criteria for drinking water supply sources.

The impact of inadequate water quality on water scarcity and its regional inequality is still unclear. However, it is evident that pollution and the dramatic economic development in China have come at an environmental cost. Widespread land-use changes, increasing volumes of untreated wastewater, and agricultural and industrial runoff have severely polluted the aquatic environment.

To address these issues, the Chinese government has taken several actions. They have issued the Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution to strengthen pollution control and ensure drinking water safety. The government is also working to improve drinking water quality in urban and rural areas, with coverage already reaching most towns and townships. The National Health Commission has also launched a revision of drinking water quality standards to further enhance water safety.

Despite these efforts, China will likely experience severe water stress in the near future due to shortages and quality concerns. To mitigate this, China should continue to focus on reducing global warming, fighting water pollution, improving environmental health surveillance, and establishing health risk assessment systems to prioritize public health.

Climate change and water security

China's water scarcity has been a concern for decades, with former premier Wen Jiabao warning of the danger of water shortages back in 2005. The country's rapid socioeconomic development and urbanization have made its water environment situation increasingly complex, and water safety has become a critical public health issue. Climate change is a key driver of China's water shortage crisis, diminishing accessible water resources in the country.

The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, also known as 'The Third Pole,' has been a stable source of river flow for civilizations along the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers for thousands of years. However, global warming has raised the temperature of this glacial region by 3-3.5°C in the past 50 years, reducing the ice mass's ability to supply freshwater through glacial melt. A 2018 Greenpeace study revealed that 82% of China's glaciers have retreated, and more than one-fifth of the ice cover has disappeared since the 1950s. This has led to a 13.9% reduction in glacial runoff into the Yangtze River alone since the 1990s, further reducing freshwater availability.

The impact of climate change on water security in China is expected to worsen in the future. Under 1.5°C and 2.0°C global warming scenarios, several river basins in China, including the Liao River, Northwest River, Hai River, Yellow River, and Huai River, will experience a more significant water shortage. The surplus of water resources will also reduce substantially in the basins of the Yangtze River, Southeast River, and Pearl River. The Yalong River Basin (YLRB), investigated for its water and energy security, is projected to have a 30% increase in its water stress index, even with the South-to-North water diversion project.

Climate change also affects water quality, as it increases the variability of the hydrological cycle, induces extreme weather events, and threatens sustainable development and biodiversity worldwide. In China, the discharge of industrial wastewater, domestic sewage, agricultural hazardous pesticides, and manure has severely polluted surface water and groundwater. A study analyzing the potential climatic impacts of the Middle Route water diversion project predicts that the sudden influx of water may alter local evaporation and precipitation rates, bringing more frequent short and intense rainfall to the area.

To address the challenges of climate change and water security, China should focus on reducing global warming, fighting water pollution, improving water treatment measures, and conducting health risk evaluations and management. The country's massive water projects, aimed at tackling the water shortage crisis, also bring new environmental, social, and geopolitical challenges that need to be carefully considered.

Water treatment and infrastructure

The Chinese government has recognised the need to address water pollution and scarcity, and has taken some steps to improve water quality and access. For example, the government quadrupled investments in the water sector during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2006-2010). This included the construction of water treatment plants and wastewater treatment plants in the Qiantang River Basin, which has helped to improve the environment and quality of life for residents in the region.

However, China's water resources remain scarce and unevenly distributed, with only 2,000 cubic meters per capita, a quarter of the world's average. In 2018, the Ministry of Water Resources found that only 81.6% of rivers, 25.0% of lakes, 87.3% of reservoirs, and 23.9% of shallow groundwater met the criteria for drinking water supply sources. This is due in part to the discharge of industrial wastewater, domestic sewage, agricultural hazardous pesticides, and manure, which have polluted both surface water and groundwater.

The wastewater treatment sector in Shenzhen has been hailed as a success story, with the treatment rate increasing from 56% to over 88% since the reform of 2001. The Asian Development Bank called the Shenzhen case "a model for market-oriented reform in the urban water sector". However, many other wastewater treatment plants in China are underutilised, with more than 50 plants in over 30 cities operating at only 30% capacity or not operating at all. This is due in part to financial difficulties, as revenues are insufficient to cover the servicing of the debt contracted to build the infrastructure.

Access to safe drinking water is closely related to public health, and it is estimated that 607.59 million people in rural China boil their water before drinking, while 36.3 million treat their water using other methods. In urban areas, household water filters are becoming more common, with an estimated 3-5% of the urban population using them. However, water purification technology in China is relatively outdated, and byproducts of disinfection can affect water quality.

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