Meghan Hodges
China's pollution problem has been decades in the making, with the country's rapid industrial expansion and economic boom since the 1970s lifting millions out of poverty but also causing record levels of air and water pollution. The burning of fossil fuels, coal in particular, has led to dangerous levels of air pollution, with northern China seeing people die on average 5.5 years sooner than they might otherwise. China's waterways have also been seriously contaminated by industrial discharges, with as much as 90% of the country's groundwater unsafe for human use. Soil pollution is another issue, threatening food safety and sustainable agriculture. While China has made some efforts to combat pollution, such as banning plastic bags in 2008 and focusing on clean energy sources, it still has a long way to go to improve its air, land, and water quality.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Start of China's pollution problem | Late 1970s |
| Reason | Economic boom and industrial expansion |
| Pollutants | Air, water, soil, light, plastic |
| Impact | 1.2 million premature deaths every year, biodiversity loss, health issues, unsafe water, loss of cultivable land |
| Improvements | 21% reduction in PM2.5 concentrations since 2018, met air pollution targets in 2021, emphasis on clean energy, plastic bag ban |
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What You'll Learn
Industrial pollution
China's pollution problem has been decades in the making and is largely attributed to its rapid economic expansion and industrialisation since the 1970s. This period of economic boom and industrial expansion lifted millions of people out of poverty, but it also resulted in a sharp increase in coal-powered industrial production and electricity demand, as well as a rise in private vehicle ownership. As a result, China's air quality has progressively deteriorated, with the country now experiencing record levels of air pollution.
China's dependence on fossil fuels, especially coal, has been a key contributor to its air pollution crisis. In recent years, China has recognised the need to transition to cleaner sources of energy, with President Xi Jinping making the fight against pollution one of his top priorities. The country has since placed a strong emphasis on developing clean energy sources such as wind and solar power, and has implemented various emission control measures to improve air quality.
Despite these efforts, China remains the biggest producer and exporter of plastic products, generating approximately 30% of the world's plastic waste. The "National Sword" policy, introduced in 2018, aimed to restrict the import of recyclable plastic scrap, but it also disrupted the global plastic scrap trade. As a result, much of the plastic scrap that China previously imported is now mismanaged by developing countries, further straining ecosystems.
China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a large-scale infrastructure project aimed at enhancing trade routes, has also faced criticism for lacking clear environmental guidelines and safety standards. Many BRI-funded projects have failed to meet international standards, resulting in negative consequences for the environment, including water quality degradation, land pollution, and ecosystem destruction.
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Population growth
China's pollution problem is closely tied to its population growth, particularly the rapid urbanisation and industrialisation that the country has undergone since the 1980s. This period of growth has been described as having no clear parallel in history and has resulted in environmental degradation that poses a long-term burden on the Chinese public and an acute political challenge to the ruling Communist Party.
The immense urban growth of Chinese cities has substantially increased the need for consumer goods, vehicles, and energy, which has, in turn, increased the burning of fossil fuels, resulting in smog. A 2012 study found that fine particles in the air, which cause respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, were among the key pollutants that accounted for a large fraction of damage to the health of Chinese citizens. The rapid population increase has also contributed to water shortages and water pollution. In 1989, China's population was 1.11 billion, with a growth rate of 14.2 per 1,000 in 1988. By 2016, the population in urban areas had increased from 523.76 million in 2003 to 711.82 million.
However, some studies have suggested that an increase in population density can lead to improved air quality in China. This is due to the increased use of clean energy and public transportation, which can reduce the unit cost of clean energy output and public transport services, leading to economies of density.
While China's pollution problem is deeply entrenched, the country has made efforts to address it. In 2015, the average PM2.5 in 74 key cities under the monitoring system showed a 23.6% decrease compared to 2013. Cities have also cut concentrations of fine particulates in the air by 32% on average in just four years. These reductions are expected to result in significant health improvements for residents, extending their life spans by months or years.
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Fossil fuels
China's pollution problem has been linked to its economic growth and industrialization. The country's rapid development has resulted in various forms of pollution, including air, soil, and water pollution, causing significant environmental and health issues.
The consequences of this pollution are dire. In northern China, air pollution from burning fossil fuels is causing people to die on average 5.5 years sooner than they would otherwise. According to a 1997 report by the World Bank, hundreds of thousands of premature deaths and incidents of serious respiratory illness have been caused by exposure to industrial air pollution. A more recent global study in 2019 linked fossil fuel pollution to about 60% of the more than 8 million deaths worldwide attributable to fine particles (PM2.5) and ozone (O3), with China having the highest death toll of 2.44 million deaths per year.
However, there is a growing focus on decoupling economic growth from pollution. China is expected to significantly contribute to global renewable energy capacity in 2023 and 2024, and if this pace is maintained or accelerated, the country's electricity generation from fossil fuels could enter a period of structural decline. This decline is projected to occur despite the ongoing permitting and construction of new coal plants, indicating a potential shift in China's energy landscape.
Additionally, China has implemented measures to address pollution, such as the ban on free plastic bags in supermarkets and stores in 2008, which reduced the number of plastic bags in the garbage by 10% in the following year. While China's pollution problem is deeply rooted in its industrialization and fossil fuel usage, there are signs of a transition towards cleaner energy sources and a recognition of the importance of environmental reforms.
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Water pollution
In 2006, Chinese environmental activist and journalist Ma Jun warned that China was facing a water crisis, with 400 out of 600 cities experiencing water shortages to varying degrees, including 30 out of the 32 largest cities. He also highlighted the continuous increase in wastewater discharge from 2001 to 2006, affecting the drinking water of 300 million peasants.
A 2006 article by the Chinese Embassy in the UK also stated that approximately 300 million people in China lacked access to clean water. This issue is exacerbated by severe water shortages and a growing population, with China withdrawing roughly 600 billion cubic meters of water annually. China's total water use increased by 8.8% between 2000 and 2015, while wastewater emissions grew by more than 50%.
In 2015, Shanghai's water pollution reached a critical level, with 85% of the water in the city's major rivers being undrinkable, and 56.4% unfit for any purpose. Beijing, China's capital city, also faced significant water pollution, with 39.9% of its water unusable. Tianjin, a principal port city in northern China, had only 4.9% of its water usable as a drinking water source.
The Yellow River, one of the world's longest waterways, has also suffered severe pollution. A 2008 report revealed that one-third of the river had become unusable even for agricultural or industrial purposes due to factory discharges and sewage from rapidly expanding cities.
China's water pollution problem has resulted in serious economic and social costs. In the first half of 2017, China spent an estimated RMB 667.4 billion ($100.2 billion) on nearly 8,000 water cleanup projects. Water pollution has also been linked to higher rates of cancer, with a 2012 study finding a correlation between deteriorating drinking water quality and increased death rates from digestive cancer.
While China has made efforts to address water pollution, such as the Ministry of Environment's 2015 order for provinces to meet their water quality targets, the country continues to struggle with providing safe drinking water for its vast population.
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Air quality management
China's pollution issues began during the country's industrialization and have been exacerbated by its reliance on fossil fuels for economic growth. China's air quality management efforts have become increasingly important to combat the serious health and environmental problems caused by pollution.
To address air pollution, China has implemented various measures, including the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (APPCAP) in 2013. This plan aimed to reduce the concentration of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), a hazardous airborne particle, and improve overall air quality. From 2013 to 2017, the annual average concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, sulphur dioxide, and carbon monoxide decreased significantly in 74 key cities.
China has also taken steps to reduce plastic waste, banning supermarkets and shops from providing free plastic bags in 2008. This ban led to a 10% reduction in plastic bags in the garbage the following year. Additionally, China is promoting the use of electric vehicles and expanding funding for clean heating to reduce carbon emissions.
Other measures to improve air quality include:
- Developing new and clean energy sources while reducing coal consumption in specific regions.
- Increasing natural gas production and curbing projects with high energy consumption and emissions.
- Improving freight cargo transport efficiency by using rail and water instead of road transport.
- Focusing on the complex photochemical interactions between ozone (O3) and PM2.5 to develop integrated control strategies.
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Frequently asked questions
Pollution in China has been an issue since the country's industrial expansion and economic boom in the late 1970s.
Air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal, is a significant issue in China, causing premature deaths and respiratory illnesses. Water pollution is also a major problem, with 90% of the country's groundwater contaminated and 70% of rivers and lakes unsafe for human use.
The industrial sector is a major contributor to air pollution in China, accounting for about 48% of the country's CO2 emissions. The power sector, mainly coal-fired plants, contributes 40%, while the transport industry contributes 8%.
Beijing has made air quality a priority, establishing new ambient air quality standards. Since 2018, major cities have seen a 21% reduction in annual PM2.5 concentrations, and Beijing met its air pollution targets for the first time in 2021. China has also placed a strong emphasis on clean energy, with investments in wind and solar power.
China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has been criticised for lacking clear environmental guidelines, safety standards, and worker protections. Many BRI-funded projects have negatively impacted water quality, polluted land, and damaged ecosystems in several countries.
