The History Of Air Pollution: When Did It Start?

Air pollution has been a problem for as long as humans have lived in cities and used tools to improve their quality of life. From the smoke of ancient Rome to the industrial revolution, air pollution has been a topic of concern for every human civilization. While it may seem like a modern problem, air pollution has been recognized as a threat to human health since as early as 400 BC. The industrial revolution, which began in the UK in the 18th century, accelerated the magnitude of emissions of primary pollutants and the geographical spread of contributing countries, with highly polluted cities becoming the defining issue.

The Industrial Revolution and the burning of coal

The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late 18th century, marked a significant shift towards mechanisation and the use of steam power, leading to the mass burning of coal. This transformation brought about rapid economic growth and substantial improvements in living standards. However, it also had detrimental effects on the environment and public health, particularly air quality.

As the Revolution progressed, urbanisation intensified, and cities like Manchester, Glasgow, and Birmingham expanded rapidly to accommodate the growing factory workforce. These urban centres became heavily industrialised and increasingly polluted. The burning of coal in factories and for residential heating darkened the skies with thick smog and led to a sharp increase in carbon emissions. The widespread use of coal-powered machinery contributed to environmental degradation, natural resource depletion, water pollution, and urban overcrowding.

The adverse effects of coal burning on air quality and public health were evident as early as the 19th century. Social reformers raised concerns about the squalor, overcrowding, and pollution from coal burning in urban areas. Studies have linked coal pollution to detrimental effects on child development and increased infant mortality in the 19th century. Additionally, the burning of sulphur-rich coal contributed to the issue of acid rain, as described by Scottish chemist Robert Angus Smith in his 1852 investigations and 1872 book, "Air and Rain: The Beginnings of a Chemical Climatology".

The Industrial Revolution's environmental impact was not limited to localised air pollution but also contributed to global climate change. The intensive use of fossil fuels, particularly coal, set the stage for large-scale carbon emissions that continue to drive global warming today. The cumulative environmental strain of each phase of industrialisation has led to significant increases in air pollution, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions.

The Clean Air Act, adopted in the UK after a lethal smog event in 1952, aimed to tackle air pollution from industrial activities. It led to significant reductions in emissions in urban areas and the closure of polluting infrastructure. While this marked a step towards addressing air pollution, the long-term damage to the environment and public well-being from the Industrial Revolution and coal burning has had lasting consequences.

Air pollution in the ancient world

Air pollution has been a problem since ancient times, predating the Industrial Revolution. The earliest known form of air pollution is ancient indoor wood fires, the effects of which have been found in the blackened lungs of mummified tissue from Egypt, Peru, and Great Britain.

In ancient cities, smell pollution was a significant issue. Aristotle (384 BC–322 BC) mentioned in his work, *Athenaion Politeia*, a rule about the disposal of manure. Ancient Egyptian records also mention the unbearable stench of rotting food and excrement during a siege.

The ancient Romans kept livestock, which excreted methane gas, a byproduct of digestion. They also burned wood to fashion metal weapons, producing more methane. Roman philosopher and statesman Seneca wrote about the "oppressive atmosphere of the city and that reek of smoking cookers which pour out, along with clouds of ashes, all the poisonous fumes they’ve accumulated in their interiors whenever they’re started up." Roman courts considered civil claims over smoke pollution 2,000 years ago, with the jurist Aristo declaring that a local cheese shop couldn't expel smoke into the buildings above it.

In China, during the Han dynasty, the expansion of rice fields contributed to air pollution as these fields harbor methane-producing bacteria. By the 1600s, smoke from burning coal was causing damage to architecture in London and other major cities. The invention and widespread use of the steam engine further accelerated air pollution.

The 1952 Great Smog of London

Air pollution has been a concern for human civilizations since at least the time of Ancient Rome, and it has been recognized as a threat to human health since the time of Hippocrates, around 400 BC. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the UK in the late 18th century, accelerated the magnitude of emissions of primary pollutants and their geographical spread. The burning of coal, the expansion of factories, and the growth of cities contributed to the problem.

The Great Smog of London, also known as the Great Smog of 1952, was a severe air pollution event that affected London, England, from Friday, December 5, to Tuesday, December 9, 1952. An anticyclone and windless conditions caused a temperature inversion, trapping cool, stagnant air under a layer of warmer air. This weather condition, combined with emissions from industrial chimneys, motor vehicle exhausts, and other pollutants, primarily from the burning of coal, formed a thick layer of smog over the city.

The smog had a greenish-yellow color due to the presence of tarry particles of soot and was nicknamed a "pea-souper." It caused major disruption by reducing visibility and penetrating indoor areas. The smoke-like pollution was so toxic that it reportedly choked cows to death in the fields. The smog also had significant impacts on human health, causing a spike in deaths and hospitalizations related to respiratory issues, pneumonia, and bronchitis.

Government medical reports initially estimated that up to 4,000 people died as a direct result of the smog, with 100,000 more falling ill. However, more recent research suggests that the total number of fatalities was significantly higher, with estimates ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 deaths. The long-term effects of the smog included lower intelligence and worse respiratory health for those who were fetuses or infants at the time.

The Great Smog of London brought attention to the seriousness of air pollution and led to the passing of environmental legislation, including the Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968, which banned emissions of black smoke and promoted the use of smokeless fuels. These laws and modern developments, such as the widespread use of central heating, have helped to reduce the occurrence of such severe smog events.

Transboundary issues of acid rain

Air pollution has been a concern for human civilizations since ancient times, with written accounts dating back to around 400 BC. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the UK in the late 18th century, marked a significant increase in emissions of primary pollutants, particularly from coal combustion in developing cities. This period witnessed the emergence of modern laws aimed at controlling air pollution, reflecting the growing public health concerns of the time.

The first international conference on acid rain, held in 1975, brought attention to the global scale of air pollution issues. Studies presented at this conference and subsequent meetings demonstrated clear links between sulfur emissions in industrial nations and their impact on neighboring regions. For example, Scandinavia experienced significant declines in fish populations due to the effects of acid rain on freshwater ecosystems.

Acid rain can have detrimental effects on soil, forests, streams, and lakes. It leaches aluminum from the soil, harming plant life and wildlife, including insects and fish. Additionally, acid rain strips trees of essential minerals and nutrients, impairing their ability to absorb sunlight and withstand harsh temperatures. Episodic acidification, triggered by melting snow or heavy rainfall, can lead to short-term stress or even death for various organisms and species within an ecosystem.

The transboundary nature of acid rain underscores the need for global cooperation in addressing air pollution. While advancements in emission detection and satellite remote sensing have improved our understanding of air pollution, it remains a pressing issue. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 91% of the world's population resides in areas where air pollution levels surpass the recommended guideline limits.

Air pollution in Asia

Air pollution has been a problem for human civilizations since the time of Ancient Rome, and Asia is no exception. The burning of fossil fuels and biomass is the principal source of air pollution in the Asia-Pacific region, which is home to some of the world's most polluted countries. In 2023, nine countries in the region were ranked among the 40 most polluted nations in the world. China, Japan, Laos, the Republic of Korea, and Vietnam are among the countries where the air quality fails to meet the World Health Organization's (WHO) guidelines.

The Asia-Pacific Clean Air Partnership, established in 2015, is a platform for policymakers and stakeholders to collaborate and find solutions to tackle air pollution. The partnership focuses on implementing measures to reduce fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and tropospheric ozone, the most damaging air pollutants. These pollutants are formed by the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass and have severe impacts on both human health and the environment. Exposure to PM2.5 can cause cancer and is linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Tropospheric ozone, primarily produced by vehicles, industrial emissions, and forest fires, damages crops and contributes to climate change.

The effects of air pollution in Asia are devastating, with millions of people falling sick or dying prematurely each year. In 2021, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania had the second-highest rate of premature deaths from PM2.5, after the Middle East and North Africa. China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Vietnam, and the Philippines were the most affected countries in the region.

To address this crisis, countries in Asia can invest in renewable energy, tighten vehicle emission standards, and promote the transition to electric cars. For example, Indonesia could reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 650 megatonnes, equivalent to taking 130 million cars off the road, by implementing such measures. Additionally, the Asia-Pacific region can benefit from the Climate and Clean Air Coalition's efforts to improve air quality and protect the climate by reducing short-lived climate pollutants.

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