The Air Pollution Crisis: When Did It Start?

Air pollution has been a problem for centuries, but it became a significant issue during the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s. As cities became more populated, industrial cities across Europe and the United States experienced a new kind of pollution from waste produced by industries and factories. This pollution contaminated water sources and the air, leading to episodes of smog in cities like London and New York, which resulted in many deaths. While air pollution has been recognised as a threat to human health since as early as 400 BC, the Industrial Revolution accelerated the magnitude of emissions and the number of contributing countries, making it a pressing issue in modern times.

The Industrial Revolution and air pollution

Air pollution has been a problem since the earliest human ancestors, but it became a significant issue during the Industrial Revolution. This period, which began in the second half of the 1700s and stretched into the early 1800s, brought about a transition to new manufacturing processes. The shift to mechanized factory systems, chemical manufacturing, iron production, and increased use of steam and water power led to a sharp increase in carbon emissions and harmful environmental pollution.

The Industrial Revolution transformed largely rural societies, as people moved from the countryside into fast-growing cities in search of work in factories. This rapid urbanization put immense pressure on urban infrastructures, resulting in overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions. The lack of clean water and proper sewage systems made infectious diseases, such as cholera, more prevalent.

The widespread use of coal to power factories and machinery during the Industrial Revolution significantly contributed to air pollution. In the 19th century, episodes of "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) in cities like New York and London resulted in numerous deaths. The burning of coal in factories and homes, along with industrial processes, released pollutants into the air, creating a serious health hazard for residents.

As the Industrial Revolution progressed, the environmental strain intensified. Each phase of industrialization brought further increases in air pollution, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions. The rapid industrial growth outpaced the ability to manage waste and emissions, resulting in long-term environmental damage and adverse effects on public well-being. The focus on productivity and economic growth during this period often came at the expense of environmental sustainability, setting a precedent for unchecked resource exploitation and high emissions that continue to impact the world today.

The negative consequences of the Industrial Revolution were not limited to air pollution. The Second Industrial Revolution, which occurred from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, introduced electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine. This phase led to mass production and the growth of heavy industries, further exacerbating environmental issues. The cumulative effects of industrialization have resulted in a continuous rise in greenhouse gases, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity, posing significant global challenges that persist today.

Air pollution in the 19th century

Air pollution has been a problem since the earliest ancestors of humans first appeared. However, it became a more pressing issue in the 19th century with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. This period saw a transition to new manufacturing processes, including the rise of mechanized factory systems, chemical manufacturing, iron production, and increased use of steam and water power. The coal industry in Great Britain expanded rapidly, driven by economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks.

As a result of industrialization, cities across Europe and the United States experienced a new kind of pollution. Waste from industries and factories contaminated the air and water, causing severe health issues and even deaths. In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the gross industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales, noting the presence of "alkali works, copper works, sulfuric acid liquid, sulfate of iron from tin-plate works, and by slag, cinders, and small coal."

London, in particular, experienced frequent and severe fogs during the 19th century, often so dense that they halted railway journeys and interrupted economic activities. These fogs contributed to an increase in crime rates and a steep rise in deaths from bronchitis. Alexis de Tocqueville, in his 1835 publication "Journey to England," described the industrial city of Manchester as having "thirty or forty factories" with "huge palaces of industry" that kept "air and light out of human habitations."

The problem was not limited to Europe and North America. Today's major developing cities, such as Delhi, Beijing, Jakarta, and Karachi, have followed a similar pathway of increasing air pollution during their industrialization, although they have managed to develop in a cleaner way than the high-income cities of the 19th century.

It is important to note that, at the time, many people did not recognize the detrimental effects of coal smoke on human health or the environment. The "miasmatic" theory of disease, which blamed illness on sewage and rotting plants and animals, became obsolete in the mid-19th century with the advent of bacteriology and epidemiology.

The Clean Air Act

Air pollution has been a problem for centuries, but it became particularly acute during the Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century. The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the primary federal air quality law in the United States, designed to reduce and control air pollution across the nation.

The Act was initially enacted in 1963 and has been amended several times since, making it one of the most influential modern environmental laws in the US. The CAA is administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in coordination with state, local, and tribal governments. The EPA develops extensive administrative regulations to implement the law, including the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) program and the National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants program.

The 1970 CAA Amendments are particularly notable, as they aimed to address the public health and welfare risks posed by widespread air pollutants. The goal was to set and achieve NAAQS in every state by 1975. The Act was further amended in 1977 and 1990 to set new goals and deadlines for achieving NAAQS, as many areas had failed to meet the initial targets.

The 1990 Amendments also addressed four major threats to the environment and public health: acid rain, urban air pollution, toxic air emissions, and stratospheric ozone depletion. The Acid Rain Program (ARP), established under these amendments, was the first cap-and-trade emissions program in the US, targeting sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from power plants.

Acid rain

Air pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. During the Middle Ages, for example, diseases like cholera and typhoid fever spread throughout Europe due to unsanitary conditions caused by human and animal waste. However, the Industrial Revolution, which began in the early 19th century, marked the start of a new era of pollution. As cities became more populated, industrialised cities in Europe and the United States experienced a new type of pollution: waste from factories and industries. This pollution contaminated water sources and contributed to episodes of "smog" in cities, causing many deaths.

The effects of acid rain are widespread and detrimental. It increases the acidity of freshwater ecosystems, contributing to the loss of aquatic animal species and plant life. Acid rain also impacts soil health by stripping it of essential nutrients like calcium and magnesium, which are crucial for plant growth. Additionally, acid rain has corrosive effects on infrastructure, including steel structures, paint, and stone buildings. It also damages historical monuments and statues made of limestone, marble, and other materials containing high amounts of calcium carbonate.

In response to the growing awareness of acid rain, governments in Europe and North America began implementing regulations to reduce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions in the 1970s. The 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution was established to address the issue internationally. In 1990, the Clean Air Act Amendments were passed in the United States, mandating reductions in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides. While these efforts have had positive results, acid rain remains a concern, with ongoing impacts on ecosystems and infrastructure.

Air pollution and health

Air pollution has been a concern since the 1960s, when acid rain was first identified in North America. This phenomenon was quickly linked to the long-range transport of pollutants from power plants, and it contributed to the loss of biodiversity, especially aquatic life. Since then, air pollution has become a global issue, with industrialisation, population growth, and global trade playing significant roles in increasing emissions and deteriorating air quality.

The health effects of air pollution have been extensively studied, and the results indicate a strong correlation between air pollution and adverse health outcomes. Long-term exposure to air pollution has been linked to reduced life expectancy, primarily due to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and lung cancer. Fine particles (PM2.5) pose the greatest risk to human health, as they can be inhaled deeply into the lungs. These particles are produced by human activities such as burning coal, gasoline, and oil for energy, transportation, industrial processes, and domestic heating.

Short-term exposure to high levels of air pollution can also have detrimental effects on health, including impacts on lung function, exacerbation of asthma, and increased hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular issues. Some groups are more susceptible to the health effects of air pollution, including children, pregnant women, older adults, and individuals with pre-existing heart and lung conditions. People in low socioeconomic areas may also be more vulnerable due to various factors, including proximity to industrial pollution sources and poor nutrition.

To address the health risks posed by air pollution, governments have implemented various strategies and regulations. For example, the Clean Air Act in the United States, established in 1970, authorises the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to regulate harmful emissions and protect public health. The EPA has since revised national air quality standards for several pollutants, recognising that even low levels of certain pollutants can be harmful. Similarly, in the UK, the government published the Clean Air Strategy in 2018, demonstrating its commitment to improving air quality and reducing harmful emissions.

While progress has been made in reducing visible air pollution, the climate crisis continues to worsen air pollution problems. Climate change intensifies smog, increases allergenic air pollutants, and contributes to wildfires, which release particulate matter into the atmosphere. As a result, addressing air pollution remains a critical challenge to protect public health and mitigate the adverse effects on vulnerable populations.

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