Brian Barton
China's environmental crisis is a pressing issue that threatens the health and well-being of its vast population, endangers global efforts to combat climate change, and risks undermining the country's economic growth and political stability. The consequences of China's rapid industrialization include severe air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and water scarcity. China's environmental challenges have resulted from a complex interplay of factors, including policy choices, historical attitudes, and rapid population and economic growth. While China has demonstrated a capacity for reducing emissions when given high policy priority, the country faces a significant task in eliminating severe pollution and achieving its carbon neutrality goals.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| China's goal | Eliminate severe air pollution by the end of 2025 |
| China's fuel mix in 2022 | 61% coal, 17.9% oil |
| Number of vehicles on the road | 360 million |
| Population | 1.4 billion |
| Average PM2.5 concentration in 2024 | 29.3 micrograms per cubic metre |
| Number of cities exceeding safety standards | 337 |
| Percentage of harmful particulates in the air reduced from 2013 to 2020 | 40% |
| China's carbon emissions in May 2025 compared to the previous year | Down 1.6% |
| China's energy generated from wind and solar in April 2025 | Over 25% |
| China's energy generated from fossil fuels in the first four months of 2025 compared to the previous year | Down 3.6% |
| China's carbon emissions | 30% of global emissions |
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What You'll Learn
- China's environmental crisis: a threat to global climate change efforts
- Air pollution: the leading cause of premature deaths in China
- Water scarcity and soil contamination: threats to food security and public health
- Industrial emissions: the need for regulatory enforcement and transparency
- Vehicle emissions: China's progress and future challenges
China's environmental crisis: a threat to global climate change efforts
China's environmental crisis, the result of decades of rapid industrialization, is a pressing challenge that threatens the health and livelihoods of the country's 1.4 billion people and the global fight against climate change. As the world's largest source of carbon emissions and greenhouse gas emissions, China has notoriously bad air quality, with many of its major cities failing to meet international health standards. North of the Huai River, life expectancy is 5.5 years lower than in the south due to air pollution.
China's carbon-intensive industries have caused additional environmental challenges, including water scarcity, soil contamination, and land deterioration. Industry along China's major water sources has polluted water supplies, with more than 60% of groundwater supplies in major cities categorized as "bad to very bad" in 2014, and over a quarter of its key rivers unfit for human contact. The lack of waste removal and proper processing, combined with negligent farming practices, overgrazing, and climate change effects, has exacerbated these problems, turning arable land into deserts. Water scarcity, pollution, and desertification reduce China's ability to sustain industrial output and produce food and drinkable water for its large population, threatening economic growth and domestic stability.
China has experienced a seven-fold increase in the frequency of floods since the 1950s, with the western and southern parts of the country predicted to continue facing increased extreme rainfall. Sea level rise, glacier retreat, and air pollution further aggravate the situation, threatening densely populated coastal cities like Shanghai, Tianjin, and Guangzhou. Climate-related disasters such as droughts and floods have grave consequences for productivity, the natural environment, and infrastructure, endangering billions of lives and exacerbating poverty.
Recognizing the urgency of the situation, China has made climate change a national strategy, integrating it into ecological civilization construction and economic and social development plans. China has shown resolve in addressing these issues, such as through the anti-pollution campaign launched in 2013, which successfully reduced PM2.5 particulate matter, deemed the most harmful. China has also pledged to cut emissions under the Paris Agreement, reduce coal use, and invest in renewable energy. However, challenges remain, including the government's struggle to balance economic growth with environmental protection and the constraint of activism due to fears of social change. China's ability to follow through on its commitments and effectively address its environmental crisis will have significant implications for the global climate change effort.
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Air pollution: the leading cause of premature deaths in China
China is facing an unprecedented environmental health crisis, with air pollution being responsible for about 2 million deaths in China annually, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Of those deaths, ambient air pollution alone caused more than 1 million, while household air pollution from cooking with polluting fuels and technologies caused another million. Fine particles in polluted air can penetrate deep into the lungs and cardiovascular system, causing diseases including stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases and respiratory infections. Industry, transportation, coal power plants and household solid fuel usage are major contributors to air pollution.
According to the Global Burden of Disease study, ambient PM2.5 pollution was responsible for approximately 1.4 million premature deaths in China in 2019. However, thanks to the anti-pollution campaign launched in 2013, which focused on controlling PM2.5, the average PM2.5 concentration dropped by 50 percent, from 72 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m³) in 2013 to 36 μg/m³ in 2019. China continued to improve air quality during the Covid era (2020-2022), with the average annual concentration of PM2.5 in 339 major Chinese cities falling to 29 μg/m³ in 2022, with the average number of days classified as having good air quality reaching 316.
China aims to effectively eliminate severe air pollution by the end of 2025, according to a senior environment official. Authorities plan to improve air quality forecasting and early warning systems and enhance coordinated management of harmful airborne particles known as PM2.5, as well as ozone pollution. China will also introduce new emission standards that align with global best practices, boost the share of new energy vehicles and machinery in airports, ports and logistics parks, and promote the long-distance transportation of bulk goods by rail and water, rather than by roads.
While China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution, it is premature to celebrate the end of its war against pollution. The PM2.5 concentration of 29 μg/m³ still falls short of the WHO standard of 5 μg/m³, and after a decade of decline since 2013, overall PM2.5 levels in China rebounded for the first time in 2023. In addition, there is no indication that the government is reversing the increasing trend of other pollutants, such as ozone (O3). Surface ozone is a significant air pollutant that exacerbates respiratory conditions and increases the risk of infections and cardiovascular diseases. A multi-pollutant emission reduction strategy that addresses both PM2.5 and O3 pollution is needed to effectively reduce air pollution and improve public health in China.
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Water scarcity and soil contamination: threats to food security and public health
China's economic growth is expected to continue in the coming decades, along with urbanization and industrialization. This growth will increase the demand for land and water resources, exacerbating the existing water scarcity problem.
Water scarcity and soil contamination are already threatening food security and public health in China. The country's geographic mismatch between arable land and water availability has led to unsustainable agricultural expansion in dry areas. This has resulted in soil degradation, water resource overexploitation, and pollution. In particular, Inner Mongolia and the greater Beijing area are suffering from severe water scarcity, threatening both ecosystems and human activity.
The inadequate quantity and quality of surface water resources in China have led to the long-term use of wastewater irrigation in agriculture. This has caused serious agricultural land and food pollution, especially from heavy metals, nitrites, and organic pollutants. These contaminants can increase the risk of cancers and other health issues such as diarrhea, abortion, hepatitis A, and typhoid.
The accumulation of heavy metals in farmlands with intensive agriculture and large irrigation systems is a growing concern. Additionally, waste materials from intensive livestock production, which contain high concentrations of arsenic, zinc, and copper, are becoming significant pollution sources.
To address water scarcity, China has implemented projects such as the South to North Water Transfer (SNWT) to increase water supply in the north. However, there is also a need to explore additional domestic strategies, such as improving water-use efficiency and crop water productivity, and managing demand through water pricing and policies limiting groundwater overdraft.
China has also been battling air pollution, with fine particles in the air causing various health issues, including lung cancer and stroke. The country has set ambitious targets to eliminate severe air pollution by the end of 2025, focusing on improving forecasting, early warning systems, and coordinated management of airborne particles.
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Industrial emissions: the need for regulatory enforcement and transparency
China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution, with the average concentration of PM2.5 in cities falling to 29.3 micrograms per cubic meter in 2024, down from 72 micrograms per cubic meter in 2013. However, air pollution remains a critical issue, causing approximately 2 million deaths annually and affecting people's quality of life. China aims to eliminate severe air pollution by the end of 2025, focusing on improving forecasting and early warning systems and managing harmful airborne particles and ozone pollution.
To achieve this ambitious goal, China needs to address industrial emissions, which contribute significantly to air pollution. Industrial emissions control technologies, such as electrostatic precipitators, desulphurisation, and selective catalytic reduction, can effectively reduce sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and fine particle emissions from industrial processes. However, for these technologies to be effective, regulatory enforcement and transparency are essential.
Regulatory enforcement ensures that industries comply with emission standards and regulations. Governments play a crucial role in establishing and enforcing these standards, holding industries accountable for their environmental impact. In the United States, for example, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates emissions under the Clean Air Act, requiring industrial facilities to install pollution control equipment and meet specific emission limits. Enforcement actions are taken against sources that fail to properly report their greenhouse gas emissions or comply with required standards.
Transparency is equally vital in addressing industrial emissions. Disclosure of greenhouse gas emissions and climate-related financial risks enables governments, companies, and the public to understand the magnitude and sources of emissions. It empowers stakeholders to make informed decisions and develop effective strategies to reduce emissions. For instance, the Federal Acquisition Regulation in the United States aims to ensure that major federal suppliers disclose their GHG emissions and set targets for reduction.
In the context of China's efforts, regulatory enforcement can be strengthened by strictly enforcing vehicle emission standards and promoting the use of cleaner energy sources. Additionally, transparency can be enhanced by providing public access to accurate and timely data on industrial emissions, enabling greater public participation and accountability. By combining rigorous regulatory enforcement with increased transparency, China can effectively tackle industrial emissions and make substantial progress towards its goal of eliminating severe air pollution by 2025.
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Vehicle emissions: China's progress and future challenges
China has approximately 360 million vehicles on the road, the highest number of any country in the world. Vehicle emissions are a significant contributor to China's air pollution, with carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter all coming from car exhausts. Tyre, road, and brake wear and tear also negatively impact air quality.
China has made notable progress in reducing vehicle emissions. From 2013 to 2020, the amount of harmful particulates in the air fell by 40%. An anti-pollution campaign launched in 2013 focused on controlling PM2.5, deemed the most harmful particulate matter. By 2019, the average PM2.5 concentration had dropped by 50%, from 72 micrograms per cubic meter in 2013 to 36 micrograms per cubic meter in 2019. In 2022, the average annual concentration of PM2.5 in 339 major Chinese cities was 29 micrograms per cubic meter, with 316 days of good air quality.
China has committed to peaking carbon dioxide emissions by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2060 (the 30·60 Target). To meet these goals, the country must address the carbon emissions from its automobile industry, which will continue to grow as car ownership per thousand is yet to saturate. By 2050, China is predicted to have nearly 550 million cars.
To reduce vehicle emissions, China has implemented a strategy focusing on the development of pure electric, plug-in hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles. China is the world's largest market for new energy vehicles, and fiscal and tax incentive policies have been put in place to further accelerate their development. Additionally, China plans to boost the share of new energy vehicles and machinery in airports, ports, and logistics parks.
However, challenges remain. There is a shortage of test standards and policies for commercial vehicles, which contribute more than half of the carbon emissions in the automobile industry. Oil product and vehicle emission standards also need to be upgraded simultaneously to achieve greater environmental benefits. Furthermore, middle-sized cities in China may become significant contributors to air pollution due to their increasing vehicle populations and lagged control policies. More comprehensive policies are needed to address vehicle pollution in these cities.
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Frequently asked questions
China is the world's top emitter, producing over a quarter of the world's annual greenhouse gas emissions. Its air quality is deemed unsafe by the World Health Organisation.
Air pollution alone kills hundreds of thousands of citizens every year. According to a 2015 study, 1.6 million people in China die annually from heart, lung, and stroke problems due to polluted air.
China has implemented policies to curb emissions and stem further degradation, such as signing the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate and pledging to be carbon neutral by 2060. China has also launched anti-pollution campaigns and improved forecasting and early warning systems.
China's fuel mix in 2022 was 61% coal, which releases harmful pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. The country also has 360 million vehicles on the road, contributing to carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide emissions.
China has quickly and sharply reduced pollution since enacting strict policies, with particulate pollution declining by 39.6% from 2013 to 2020. If these reductions are sustained, studies forecast a potential increase of 2.2 years in average life expectancy for China.
