Industrial Revolution's Dark Legacy: Air Pollution's Early History

Air pollution has been a problem for thousands of years, but it began to worsen from the 1700s onwards, with the onset of industrial growth. By the 1800s, air pollution was a significant issue, causing respiratory illness and higher death rates. Two causes of air pollution in the 1800s were the burning of coal and the waste produced by industries and factories.

Coal burning

The dominant contributor to London's historic air pollution was coal burning. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the coal industry in Great Britain expanded rapidly, driven by economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks (such as railways and waterways). This period, known as the Industrial Revolution, depended almost entirely on coal as its fuel source. Coal supplied domestic hearths, and coal-powered steam engines turned the wheels of industry and transport.

The demand for coal was high, and with falling coal prices (nearly halving between 1820 and 1850), there was a rapid increase in national coal consumption. This rise in coal consumption was also driven by the growth of cities, which led to a higher demand for coal as a fuel source. London, known as the "Big Smoke", experienced severe air pollution, with frequent and dense fogs that disrupted daily life and contributed to a rise in crime. The city averaged 80 days of dense fog per year, with some areas recording up to 180 days in 1885.

The health impacts of coal burning were significant. Respiratory illnesses increased, and death rates rose, especially among the elderly and young children. An increase of just 1% in coal intensity was associated with a rise in infant deaths. Those who grew up in polluted areas were almost an inch shorter than those who breathed cleaner air. The air pollution caused by coal burning also had economic costs, with disruptions to railway journeys and other economic activities.

It wasn't until the late 19th century that the concentration of air pollution in London reached its peak and then began a steep decline. This decline can be attributed to various factors, including improved connectivity and commuter links, which led to a reduction in population density in prime pollution hotspots. Additionally, increased environmental regulations, such as the Public Health Act for London in 1891, incentivised businesses to adopt cleaner energy practices and switch to less polluting fuel sources.

Industrial growth

In the 1800s, there were only six cities worldwide with a population of over 500,000 people. By 1900, this number had increased to 43 cities. This rapid urbanisation, coupled with industrial growth, led to a surge in air pollution. Residents of these emerging industrial hubs suffered from the smoke and fumes that filled the air, causing respiratory illnesses and higher death rates.

London, for example, experienced frequent and severe fogs during the 19th century due to air pollution. These fogs were so dense that they disrupted railway journeys, economic activities, and even contributed to an increase in crime rates. The city averaged 80 days of dense fog per year, with some areas recording up to 180 days in 1885. The pollution was so bad that it drove people to move away, as steel tycoon Andrew Carnegie noted in 1898.

The burning of coal was a major source of air pollution in London, and it had been an issue since the 1200s when the city first experienced the development of smog. However, the demand for coal as a fuel source increased with the growth of cities, drastically impacting air quality. This was also the case in other industrial cities like Manchester, England, and Pittsburgh, USA, where smoke was both a sign of prosperity and a public health problem.

The issue of air pollution from industrial growth was not limited to London. In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the severe industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales, caused by various chemical wastes. Similarly, in the United States, industrial chemicals and wastes contaminated waters in the Northeast, including the Cuyahoga River, which caught fire multiple times due to the buildup of debris and oil on its surface.

Population growth

In the 1800s, the world experienced a rapid increase in urbanisation and industrialisation, with the number of cities worldwide with a population of over 500,000 people increasing from 6 to 43 between 1800 and 1900. This urban growth was particularly pronounced in Europe and North America, which were the first to experience rapid industrial growth and, consequently, the most impacted by emissions during the second half of the twentieth century.

The growth of cities and the emergence of megacities led to a surge in the demand for energy sources such as coal, oil, and wood. Coal, in particular, became a dominant fuel source, with the coal industry in Great Britain expanding rapidly throughout the 1800s due to economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks. The increase in coal consumption was driven by falling coal prices (nearly halving between 1820 and 1850) and rising demand, particularly in industrial cities.

The burning of coal and wood for heating, cooking, and industrial processes contributed significantly to air pollution. This was exacerbated by the belief held by many people that coal smoke was harmless or even beneficial, with some considering it an antidote to pollution. It was only in the mid-19th century that the miasmatic" theory of disease, which attributed ill health to natural biological processes rather than energy use or industry, became obsolete due to advancements in bacteriology and epidemiology.

The growing population also led to an increase in domestic emissions. Private households burning coal for heating and cooking contributed substantially to the rise in air pollution. As cities expanded and population density increased, the concentration of pollutants in the air intensified, first in urban areas and then spreading across countries.

It is important to note that the relationship between population growth and air pollution is complex and influenced by various factors, including economic development, industrial growth, and energy sources. Additionally, the dispersal of populations from dense urban areas to surrounding suburban regions can lead to a reduction in population density and exposure to pollution hotspots, mitigating the impact of population growth on air pollution.

Lack of regulation

Air pollution in the 1800s was caused by a lack of regulation, which allowed for the unrestricted burning of coal and the development of smog in major cities.

In the 1800s, the world was industrialising and urbanising at an unprecedented rate. By 1900, there were 43 cities worldwide with a population of more than 500,000 people, up from just 6 in 1800. This rapid growth led to a significant increase in air pollution, particularly in industrial cities. The burning of coal, for example, was a major contributor to air pollution in London, which became known as the "Big Smoke". The city averaged 80 dense fog days per year, with some areas recording up to 180 in 1885.

The lack of regulation allowed for the unrestricted burning of coal, which was the dominant contributor to London's historic air pollution. This resulted in frequent and severe fogs, which halted railway journeys, interrupted economic activities, and contributed to a rise in crime. The pollution also had significant health costs, with mortality from bronchitis increasing from 25 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants in 1840 to 300 deaths per 100,000 in 1890. At its peak, one in 350 people in London died from bronchitis.

The lack of regulation also allowed for the development of smog, a combination of smoke and fog. Smog was a significant problem in cities like New York and London, resulting in many deaths. In 1881, Chicago became the first American city to create a local ordinance regulating smoke discharges, but these early ordinances were feeble and did little to improve air quality. It wasn't until the late 1940s and early 1950s that countries began to react to severe smog events with strong air quality policies.

The lack of regulation in the 1800s also extended to water pollution, with industrial chemicals and wastes contaminating rivers and waterways. In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the gross industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales, and similar contamination was found in waterways in the United States.

Overall, the lack of regulation in the 1800s allowed for the unrestricted burning of coal, the development of smog, and the contamination of water sources, all of which contributed to the air pollution problems of the time. It wasn't until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that efforts began to be made to regulate and improve air quality.

Water pollution

While air pollution was a significant issue in the 1800s, water pollution was also a pressing concern. Here are four to six paragraphs detailing the causes and impacts of water pollution during that time:

Industrial Waste and Chemicals

The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s brought about a new era of pollution, particularly in industrialized cities across Europe and the United States. Rivers became dumping grounds for industrial waste and chemicals, with the Tawe River in Wales being a notable example. In his 1897 report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution, the gross industrial contamination of the Tawe River was detailed, listing "alkali works, copper works, sulfuric acid liquid, sulfate of iron from tin-plate works, and slag, cinders, and small coal" as pollutants.

Urbanization and Population Growth

The increasing population in cities during the 19th century put a strain on water resources and contributed to water pollution. As more people settled in urban areas, the demand for water increased, and proper waste disposal became a challenge. This led to the contamination of water sources, as human and animal wastes, garbage, and industrial effluents made their way into rivers and waterways.

Lack of Treatment and Infrastructure

During the 1800s, the concept of wastewater treatment was still in its infancy. Cities lacked adequate infrastructure to handle the increasing volumes of wastewater generated by growing populations and industries. This resulted in the discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage into nearby water bodies, further exacerbating water pollution.

Contamination of Drinking Water

The lack of proper water treatment had dire consequences for public health. Contaminated drinking water sources led to the spread of diseases, including cholera and typhoid fever, which plagued Europe during the Middle Ages. It wasn't until the 1800s that people began to understand the link between unsanitary living conditions, water contamination, and disease epidemics.

Agricultural Practices

In the 1800s, agricultural practices also contributed to water pollution. The use of pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals in farming could run off into nearby streams and rivers, affecting water quality. Additionally, livestock waste and improper disposal of animal carcasses could further contaminate water sources, leading to ecological imbalances and health risks for downstream communities.

In summary, water pollution in the 1800s was primarily driven by industrialization, urbanization, and a lack of adequate waste treatment infrastructure. These factors led to the contamination of water sources, which had detrimental effects on both human health and the environment.

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