Helena Joyce
The Middle Ages is often imagined as a smelly, polluted, and disease-ridden period, with waste and poor sanitation being the biggest sources of pollution. The revival of cities and trade meant that, by the 13th century, Medieval Europe was largely an urban society. The high density of people and livestock in these cities led to a high volume of human and animal waste, which was often dumped into nearby waterways, causing contaminated water and air. In addition, the burning of coal, the hazardous dyeing industry, and the use of mercury in medicines also contributed to the pollution of medieval cities.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Human waste | Accumulation of human waste in rivers and ditches |
| Sanitation problems | Caused by urban butcher shops and tanneries |
| Air pollution | Caused by decaying carcasses, plague bodies, and waste |
| Water pollution | Contamination of rivers and streams by waste and pollutants |
| Chemical pollution | Use of mercury in medicines and alchemical experiments |
| Lead pollution | High levels of lead pollution in Britain |
| Coal burning | Burning of sea coal contributing to air pollution |
| Industrial waste | Waste from dyeing and leather industries |
| Noise pollution | Noise from crowded medieval towns and blacksmiths |
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What You'll Learn
Human and animal waste
In a medieval city with a population of 10,000, the annual production of human waste was estimated to be 900,000 litres of excrement and nearly three million litres of urine. This waste was typically disposed of in rivers and streams, leading to obstruction and contamination. The accumulation of human waste in waterways was a concern for urban officials, who believed it posed a grave threat to public health.
Animal waste was also a significant contributor to the pollution in medieval cities. Livestock, such as pigs, horses, cows, and poultry, produced large amounts of dung, which, if not properly managed, ended up in the streets and waterways. Butcher shops and tanneries added to the problem, as the remains of animal processing caused sanitation issues and putrid smells. Medieval science held that these odours corrupted the air and spread diseases. As a result, butcher shops became the target of ordinances aimed at reducing the pollution they caused, with restrictions on their proximity to taverns, shops, stables, and pens.
The management of human waste was a complex issue in medieval cities. Before the advent of underground sewage systems, human waste was often disposed of in latrines or pits located outside the home, such as in stables, barns, or compartments at the rear of properties. In some cases, waste was also thrown into the streets, despite regulations and fines imposed by city councils. The term 'night soil' referred to the human waste collected by privy and latrine cleaners, who operated on a regular schedule and were funded by taxes.
The disposal of animal waste was also regulated by city councils, with laws prohibiting the dumping of animal dung in rivers or ditches. Animal waste was supposed to be hauled to dumps or at least outside the city limits. However, the enforcement of these regulations was challenging, and the issue of waste removal persisted due to the lack of alternative options for urban dwellers.
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Butcher and tannery waste
The butcher and tannery waste was a significant contributor to the pollution and "corruption" of air and water in medieval cities. The waste products from butcher shops and tanneries included blood, entrails, fur or hair, and animal carcasses, which often ended up in the streets, waterways, or ditches, causing an "abominable stench" and posing a threat to public health.
Butchers in medieval cities often disposed of animal waste and blood in nearby waterways, such as rivers and ditches. For example, in London, the butchers of St. Nicholas Shambles threw their waste directly into the Thames, leading to complaints about the "corrupt" and "fetid" water and the resulting unpleasant odours. Similarly, in York, butchers were forbidden from discarding waste products in the river near a monastery, so they started throwing them near their walls and gates, causing another stench issue.
The disposal of animal carcasses and remains was a challenge for both butchers and tanneries. Intestines and heads had to be disposed of somewhere, and rinsing away blood and water with fur or hair created sanitation issues. This waste often piled up in streets or was thrown into waterways, leading to complaints about the resulting stench and the potential health risks.
Tanneries, in particular, were known for their unpleasant odours due to the smelly and caustic nature of leather production. As a result, tanners were often forced to operate outside the walls of medieval towns and cities. Tanneries also produced waste such as semi-rotten animal hides and chicken droppings, which contributed to the accumulation of waste in streets and waterways.
The accumulation of butcher and tannery waste in waterways led to the "corruption" of water, as described in medieval texts. This corruption was believed to infect the air, spreading diseases and posing a threat to the health of nearby residents. Medieval science and medicinal treatises held that the smells and odours from putrefied flesh and decaying carcasses corrupted the air and spread infections.
To address the issues caused by butcher and tannery waste, ordinances and public sanitation measures were implemented in medieval cities. These measures included relocating slaughterhouses outside city limits and creating offices to collect and dispose of dead animals and other waste. However, waste removal remained a challenge, as people and animals continued to produce waste, and adequate alternatives to dumping waste in streets and waterways were lacking.
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Coal burning
The burning of coal was a significant contributor to air pollution in medieval cities, particularly in London. The practice dates back to the 12th and 13th centuries when coal was burned in fireplaces, flues, and chimneys installed in homes across all classes of society. The widespread use of coal, however, led to concerns about air pollution and its impact on health.
In 1288, a commission of inquiry was appointed to investigate complaints from those living near lime kilns about the burning of coal. While the exact nature of the complaints is unclear, it is known that lime burners charged extremely high prices, so the complaints about pollution may have been motivated by a desire to keep prices down.
The negative perception of coal burning continued, and in 1307, Edward I issued a royal proclamation prohibiting the use of sea coal in London when Parliament was in session due to its unpleasant smell and potential health risks. This prohibition, like many other attempts to regulate coal burning, proved challenging to enforce.
The late medieval period marked a shift in attitudes towards pollution, with people becoming increasingly concerned about hygiene and the detrimental effects of coal burning on their health. Londoners, in particular, resisted the use of coal as a fuel, as the city already struggled with pollution from decaying organic material and poor sanitation.
Despite these concerns, the use of coal continued due to its affordability and ease of transportation. Sea coal, for example, could be easily transported by water from Newcastle to London, making it a cheaper alternative to firewood. The preference for wood over coal was a constant throughout the medieval period, but the adoption of coal spurred technological innovations and changes to housing structures.
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Poor sanitation
Medieval cities lacked modern sewage systems, and waste management practices were inadequate. Human waste was disposed of in rivers and ditches, with public latrines contributing to the "horrible, infected, and corrupt atmosphere" in cities like London. By 1415, the Walbrook River in London had become obstructed by waste, impacting the health of nearby residents.
Animal waste, including bones, hides, and offal from butcher shops and tanneries, was also a significant contributor to poor sanitation. This waste was often thrown into rivers, contaminating the water and spreading putrid odours. Medieval science linked these smells to the spread of diseases, and ordinances were enacted to reduce the pollution caused by butcher shops.
The disposal of animal carcasses and plague bodies further exacerbated sanitation issues. The belief in "miasma," or corrupted air, led to concerns about the spread of disease. While medieval cities implemented countermeasures, such as fines and regulations, the enforcement and effectiveness of these rules varied.
The high population density in medieval cities, combined with the lack of proper waste management, resulted in significant waste accumulation. For example, a historian estimates that a medieval city with a population of 10,000 produced 900,000 litres of excrement and nearly three million litres of urine annually, in addition to the large amounts of livestock dung.
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Mercury in medicine
Mercury was revered by alchemists and physicians in the Middle Ages due to its mysterious nature as the only metal that is liquid at room temperature. It was a common ingredient in medicines, particularly for treating skin diseases and syphilis, and was also used in the search for the mythical life-giving 'philosopher's stone'. The use of mercury in medicine, however, came at a great cost. Today, high levels of mercury found in medieval bones are attributed to the handling of mercury-containing medicines and inks.
The history of mercury in medicine dates back to ancient times, with knowledge of cinnabar (HgS) traced to ancient Assyria, Egypt, and China. Greek philosophers introduced the theory of the four elements—earth, air, water, and fire—which fuelled hopes of transmuting metals into gold. This laid the foundation for practical alchemy, with early hints found in the 300 AD encyclopedia compiled by Zosimos in Alexandria. Greek and Arabic medicine and alchemy were considered authoritative in the medieval West, where scientific experiments were forbidden.
In the medieval period, mercury was a go-to treatment for various diseases, including syphilis and leprosy. The use of mercury for syphilis persisted into the 19th century, and it is now believed that the 'madness' associated with advanced syphilis cases was actually acute mercury poisoning from the medication. Calomel pills, containing mercury, were also used in acute and chronic diseases and as a diuretic drug. Additionally, quicksilver ointments were employed in the treatment of skin conditions.
Mercury was not the only dangerous chemical used in medieval cities. Lead, for instance, was used to glaze pottery, and waste was a significant issue. Human and animal waste accumulated in cities' rivers and ditches, causing sanitation issues and a putrid stench. The contamination of rivers was a common problem, despite authorities' attempts to prevent it through ordinances and fines.
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Frequently asked questions
A major cause of pollution in medieval cities was waste and poor sanitation. This included human and animal waste, as well as waste from industries such as butcher shops and tanneries.
Medieval cities typically lacked underground sewage systems, and human waste was collected by 'night soil' workers on a regular schedule. Animal waste was often dumped outside the city walls.
Pollution was believed to "'infect" and "corrupt" the air, causing various health issues for entire communities. The smell of decay was thought to spread disease and lead to health issues such as the plague.
City councils in European cities began to address pollution in the late 1300s and 1400s. They enacted laws and fines for people who polluted rivers or ditches, and collected taxes to fund streetsweepers and other sanitary measures.
