Helena Joyce
Air pollution is a serious health threat, causing around 7 million deaths per year globally, according to the World Health Organization. In the US, air pollution disproportionately affects people of colour and low-income communities. California has the most polluted cities in the US, with Los Angeles topping the list. Six of the top seven cities are in California, with Bakersfield, Visalia, and Fresno-Madera-Hanford ranking as the top three metropolitan areas with the worst year-round particle pollution. These rankings are based on air quality data collected between 2021 and 2023, taking into account ground-level ozone air pollution and spikes in particle pollution.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Data | 2024 |
| Source of Data | American Lung Association's State of the Air Report |
| Number of People Living in Cities with Polluted Air | 40% of Americans (about 135 million) |
| Worst Cities for Ozone, Year-Round Particle Pollution, and Short-Term Particle Pollution | Ranked based on the weighted average number of unhealthy air days |
| Number of People Living in Counties with Poor Ozone or Particle Pollution | Over 156 million |
| Number of People Living in Counties with Poor Ozone, Particle, and Year-Round Particle Pollution | Over 42 million |
| California Cities in the Top 21 | 6 |
| California Cities in the Top 7 | 4 |
| Cities in the Central Valley | 4 |
| Cities at the Southern End of the Central Valley | Bakersfield (#1), Visalia (#2), and Fresno (#3) |
| Top 3 Sources of PM2.5 Emissions in 2023 | Farms (20%), forest management/agricultural waste burning (20%), and road dust (14%) |
| Most Polluted Portion of the Region in Northwest Indiana | Gary and East Chicago |
| Factors Contributing to Pollution in Communities of Color | Redlining, real estate discrimination, and lack of political/social clout |
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What You'll Learn
California cities dominate the list
The American Lung Association's annual "State of the Air" report for 2025 revealed that nearly half of the US population (46%) lives in areas that received a failing grade for at least one measure of air pollution. More than 156 million people live in counties that received a failing grade for ozone or particle pollution, and over 42 million people live in counties that failed all three air pollution measures. These pollutants have serious health implications, including an increased risk of premature birth, lower birth weight in newborns, asthma attacks, harm to lung development in children, and even early death.
While California cities top the list of the most polluted metropolitan areas, other US cities also struggle with poor air quality. Dallas and Houston, for example, are exposed to heavy UV radiation due to their lower latitudes and cloudless locations, which contribute to ozone pollution. Additionally, metropolitan St Louis, particularly the areas north of Delmar Boulevard, is another region with high air pollution. The populations in the neighbourhoods with the highest PM2.5 levels were 52% Black, compared to 22% for other areas of the same counties.
Furthermore, northwest Indiana, a suburb of Chicago, is a significant industrial pollution hub. The state of Indiana has been criticised for its lack of controls on emissions, and it leads the nation in industrial toxic pollution emissions per square mile, according to a 2021 EPA report. Environmental justice issues are also prevalent in Birmingham, where Black neighbourhoods have significantly worse air quality than white areas just a few miles away. Similarly, in Atlanta, the map of air pollution overlaps with historical redlining maps, indicating that minority communities continue to face the brunt of polluting facilities and freeways.
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Wildfires and vehicle emissions
Bakersfield, California
Bakersfield, located in California's Central Valley, topped the list as the most polluted city in the US in 2024. The valley's geography traps pollution from the nearby coast, and Bakersfield's dry and hot climate further exacerbates air quality issues. Wildfires in California and the surrounding region have impacted Bakersfield's air quality, as wildfire smoke contains tiny particles that are particularly harmful to human health. Vehicle emissions from the densely populated coastal areas also contribute to Bakersfield's air pollution.
Visalia and Fresno, California
Visalia and Fresno, located in the Central Valley, ranked as the second and third most polluted cities in the US in 2024. Similar to Bakersfield, their geographical location in the valley traps pollution from coastal cities. Wildfires in the region, particularly in the drier southern end of the valley, contribute to particle pollution, and vehicle emissions from nearby metropolitan areas impact air quality in these cities.
Northwest Indiana
Northwest Indiana, a suburb of Chicago, is a significant industrial pollution hub. The region has a long history in the steel industry, and despite job cuts and some abandoned factories, many steel plants continue to operate. Indiana has been criticized for its lack of controls on emissions, and the state leads the nation in industrial toxic pollution emissions per square mile. Vehicle emissions from the nearby Chicago metropolitan area also influence air quality in northwest Indiana. Wildfires, while not as prevalent as in other regions, can impact air quality in the area.
St. Louis, Missouri
St. Louis, particularly the areas north of Delmar Boulevard, faces high air pollution levels. The region is home to several energy plants that still use coal, contributing to particle pollution. Wildfires in Missouri and the surrounding states can impact St. Louis's air quality, and vehicle emissions from the metropolitan area also play a role in pollution levels.
Other Cities
Other cities mentioned in the 2024 report with air pollution issues influenced by wildfires and vehicle emissions include Eugene-Springfield, Oregon, and Detroit-Warren-Ann Arbor, Michigan. Additionally, cities like Atlanta, Georgia, and Birmingham, Alabama, have been noted for their racial disparities in air quality, with Black neighborhoods breathing worse air due to the proximity of polluting facilities and freeways.
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People of colour disproportionately affected
People of colour are disproportionately affected by air pollution in the United States. A 2021 study by researchers at the EPA-funded Center for Air, Climate, and Energy Solutions found that people of colour breathe more particulate air pollution on average, a finding that holds across income levels and regions of the US. The study also found that African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and other people of colour are disproportionately exposed to a regulated air pollutant called fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Exposure to PM2.5 can cause lung and heart problems, especially for those with chronic diseases, younger people, older people, and other vulnerable populations.
The disparities in exposure to air pollution for people of colour are driven by systemic racism and housing policies that have pushed people of colour and pollution together. Pollution sources tend to be located near disadvantaged communities, increasing exposure to harmful pollutants. People of colour are also more likely to live in counties with higher levels of pollution, particularly particle and ozone pollution. Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics were more likely to live in counties with worse air quality, according to a 2011 analysis.
Socioeconomic position also appears to be tied to greater harm from air pollution. Multiple large studies have shown that low socioeconomic status increases the risk of premature death from fine particle pollution. Communities with higher African American populations and higher unemployment rates were found to have a greater risk of premature death from air pollution. People of colour are also more likely to have lower incomes and less education, which can further increase their exposure to pollutants and the health risks associated with pollution.
Additionally, certain sources of pollution disproportionately affect communities of colour. For example, a study of Oakland, California, and Pittsburgh found that emissions from commercial kitchens, mostly from cooking oils, were a large fraction of particulate air pollution in those cities, and more people of colour tended to live nearby. Similarly, in California, Hispanic people were disproportionately exposed to particulate pollution from agriculture, as the state produces a large portion of the country's vegetables and fruits.
Addressing these disparities requires regulations that effectively address environmental injustice for people of colour exposed to air pollution from multiple source types. Reducing overall emissions is not enough to address racial and other disparities, and specific actions must be taken to protect vulnerable communities and reduce their exposure to harmful pollutants.
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Climate change increases risk
Climate change increases the risk of air pollution through a variety of mechanisms. Firstly, it enhances conditions for ozone pollution, a harmful greenhouse gas, and makes it more challenging to improve air quality in communities with high ozone levels. Warmer temperatures caused by climate change increase ground-level ozone, a significant health hazard. The Arctic, for example, is warming faster due to ozone pollution, which is transported there from the Northern Hemisphere during winter and spring.
Secondly, climate change increases the risk and frequency of wildfires, which release smoke and carbon emissions, damaging air quality. Wildfires have already caused substantial damage to areas like El Dorado and the Bay Area in California, and the resulting smoke and emissions worsen air quality over time.
Thirdly, climate change contributes to more extreme weather events, such as flooding and storm surges, which can allow moisture to enter buildings and foster the growth of harmful pollutants like mould and bacteria. Climate change also prolongs pollen seasons and increases pollen production, affecting air quality and causing health issues for those with allergies.
Additionally, climate change and air pollution are closely linked and often share common sources, such as coal-fired power plants and vehicle emissions. Certain air pollutants, like black carbon, a component of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), have a warming effect on the planet. Addressing these short-lived climate pollutants can provide dual benefits of improved air quality and mitigated climate change.
Furthermore, climate change impacts different regions in varying ways. For instance, in the US Southwest, a severe drought in 2021 increased dust and particulate matter, negatively affecting air quality. Climate-driven changes in weather patterns, including temperature and precipitation, are expected to increase ground-level ozone and particulate matter in many regions.
To reduce the risks associated with climate change and air pollution, a range of interventions are necessary. These can include transitioning to renewable energy sources, reducing vehicle emissions by promoting walking, biking, and public transportation, and implementing regulatory initiatives and partnership programs to lower air pollutants and greenhouse gases.
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US emission reduction targets
The United States has an interim goal of reducing emissions by 50-52% from 2005 levels by 2030, with a net-zero target set for 2050. This means that total greenhouse gas emissions must continue to decrease by 5-10% annually from 2030 until 2050. The US government has outlined multiple measures and actions across different sectors to achieve these targets, including:
- Fully decarbonising the domestic electricity supply by 2035.
- Increasing the share of new zero-emissions light-duty cars sold in 2030 to 50% of total sales.
- Producing 3 billion gallons of sustainable aviation fuel by 2030.
- Mobilising historic levels of investment in clean energy solutions through the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA).
While there have been positive developments under the IRA, the US faces challenges in meeting its emission reduction targets. Oil and gas production has increased under the Biden Administration, and the government continues to approve large-scale fossil fuel projects. Additionally, the government's emissions reduction targets for the buildings and agriculture sectors are not aligned with the Paris Agreement. To meet its targets, the US will need to implement additional policies and address the increasing demand for electricity across sectors.
At the state level, California, Connecticut, Oregon, Rhode Island, and New Jersey had set targets for emissions reductions for 2020, with California being the only state to meet its goal. States can also set \"carbon neutrality\" or \"net-zero\" targets, which involve addressing remaining greenhouse gas emissions through equivalent "emissions removals" or "avoided emissions".
Air pollution is a serious issue in the US, with more than 40% of Americans living in cities with polluted air. The American Lung Association's 2024 State of the Air Report ranked Bakersfield, Visalia, and Fresno-Madera-Hanford in California as the top three most polluted cities in the US based on annual PM2.5 concentrations. These cities are located in the Central Valley, where pollution from the coast tends to get trapped.
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Frequently asked questions
The three main sources of PM2.5 emissions in 2023 were farms (20%), forest management/agricultural waste burning (20%), and road dust (14%).
Cities in California make up a significant proportion of the country's most polluted places when it comes to air quality. Bakersfield, Visalia, and Fresno-Madera-Hanford ranked as the top three metropolitan areas with the worst year-round particle pollution. Outside of California, Eugene-Springfield in Oregon and Detroit-Warren-Ann Arbor in Michigan are highly polluted.
Air pollution is a serious health threat. It can trigger asthma attacks, harm lung development in children, and even be deadly. Particles in air pollution can be smaller than 1/30th the diameter of a human hair, which means they can get past the body's natural defenses. Ozone and particle pollution are both linked to an increased risk of premature birth and lower birth weight in newborns.
The Clean Air Act has successfully driven pollution reduction for over 50 years. The US Environmental Protection Agency is also critical for cleaning up air pollution by monitoring air pollution, writing rules to clean it up, and enforcing those rules. At the 2021 Climate Leaders' Summit, President Joe Biden pledged to cut US emissions by half by 2030 and reach zero carbon emissions by 2050.
