Helena Joyce
Pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors, with the first fires and permanent settlements leading to the fouling of ancient cities by human waste and debris. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas, made cities the primary sources of pollution. In the 19th century, episodes of smog in cities like New York and London resulted in many deaths. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, accelerated pollution and its harmful effects. By the middle of the 20th century, the general public became increasingly aware of the need to protect the environment, with severe incidents of pollution spurring environmental activism and legislation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Start of pollution | Prehistoric times |
| Reason | Humans creating the first fires |
| Turning point | Metal forging |
| Permanent settlements | Ancient human settlements are recognised by their wastes (shell mounds and rubble heaps) |
| Serious problem | With the establishment of permanent settlements by great numbers of people |
| Air pollution | Burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas |
| Water pollution | Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio |
| Water pollution | Hudson River |
| Water quality problems | London's Great Stink on the Thames in 1858 |
| Sanitary conditions | Berlin in 1870 |
| Cause of pollution | Human activities such as burning fossil fuels and mass deforestation |
| Impact of pollution | Increase in the average temperature of the world |
| Impact of pollution | Increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere |
| Impact of pollution | 9 million people killed annually |
| Solution | Recycling and the proper treatment of water and toxic waste |
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What You'll Learn
Pollution has existed since prehistoric times
Metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman, and Chinese metal production. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas, made cities primary sources of pollution. By the 19th century, episodes of "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) in cities like New York and London resulted in many deaths.
The industrial revolution, which took place between the 1780s and 1830s, is often associated with the onset of the Anthropocene era, a term used to describe the period when human impacts on the environment became significant. However, evidence of anthropogenic pollution in South America has been discovered that predates the industrial revolution by around 240 years. For example, ice core samples from the Quelccaya Ice Cap in Peru show a sudden and dramatic spike in lead concentrations during Spanish rule, likely due to the Inca's metallurgy.
The 20th century saw an increasing awareness of the need to protect the environment from pollution, with the publication of Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring in 1962 focusing attention on environmental damage caused by pesticides. This led to the passing of major environmental legislation in many countries, such as the Clean Air Act (1970) and the Clean Water Act (1972). Despite these efforts, pollution continues to be a significant problem, with a 2017 study by the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health finding that global pollution kills nine million people annually.
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Industrial Revolution: a key turning point
Pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. As populations grew, so did the prevalence of bacteria and disease. During the Middle Ages, for instance, diseases like cholera and typhoid fever swept across Europe, directly caused by unsanitary conditions.
However, the Industrial Revolution (1780s-1830s) is widely recognised as a key turning point, with air pollution growing alongside the boom in industry. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas, made cities primary sources of pollution. In the 19th century, episodes of "smog" in cities like New York and London resulted in many deaths.
The use of coal for fuel, which began around 1000 CE, caused considerable air pollution, but the conversion of coal to coke for iron smelting in the 17th century made the problem much worse. This was exacerbated by the Industrial Revolution, which saw a huge increase in the burning of coal in factories and homes, as well as industrial processes and the growing use of automobiles.
The period also saw the development of nuclear science, which introduced radioactive contamination. The development of metallurgy and metal forging also appear to be key turning points in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home.
The 20th century saw an escalation in pollution issues, as population growth far exceeded the ability of neighbourhoods to handle their waste problems. By the middle of the century, there was a growing awareness of the need to protect the environment, with the publication of Rachel Carson's book *Silent Spring* in 1962 focusing attention on environmental damage caused by pesticides. This led to major pieces of environmental legislation, such as the Clean Air Act (1970) and the Clean Water Act (1972).
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20th-century awareness of environmental protection
Pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. During the Middle Ages, diseases like cholera and typhoid fever spread across Europe due to unsanitary conditions. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the 1780s, further exacerbated pollution levels, particularly in cities like New York and London, where "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) led to many deaths.
In the 20th century, awareness of environmental protection grew, driven by increasing ecological consciousness and incidents of severe pollution. Here is a detailed overview:
Early 20th Century
The chemist Alice Hamilton led a campaign against lead poisoning from leaded gasoline in the early 20th century, accusing General Motors of willful murder. In 1900, the Lacey Act became the first federal legislation to outlaw the interstate shipment of birds killed in violation of state laws. President Theodore Roosevelt established the first Federal wildlife refuge, Pelican Island in Florida, in 1903. By the end of his presidency, over 50 additional refuges had been established.
Mid-20th Century
In 1935, Aldo Leopold, Benton MacKaye, Robert Mitchell, and others concerned about the growing network of highways founded the Wilderness Society. The post-World War II era witnessed unprecedented affluence in America, with millions of white middle-class families moving to the suburbs. However, their modern consumer society threatened bucolic landscapes with pesticides, smog, water pollution, and other hazards.
Late 20th Century
The 1950s and 1960s saw a convergence of factors that accelerated environmental activism and increased ecological consciousness. Rachel Carson's book, *Silent Spring* (1962), exposed the dangers of DDT and other chemical contaminants to animals and humans, galvanizing middle-class readers. Established organizations like the League of Women Voters also played a pivotal role in raising awareness about environmental issues, particularly water pollution.
The 1969 Cuyahoga River fire, caused by the ignition of floating debris and oils, became a symbol of years of environmental neglect. It spurred grassroots activism, resulting in federal legislation aimed at tackling air and water pollution. The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 and the Clean Air Act of 1990 set limits on the discharge of air pollutants and addressed issues like acid rain and ozone depletion.
The Wilderness Society successfully lobbied for the Federal Wilderness Act (1964), which established the National Wilderness Preservation System, protecting over 95 million acres of land. The Nature Conservancy, founded in 1951, has acquired more than 1500 preserves and over 9 million acres in North America.
In the 1970s, national news stories of severe pollution incidents, such as the long-term dioxin contamination at Love Canal, led to the Superfund legislation of 1980. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), commonly called the Clean Water Act, provided funding to improve sewage treatment plants and set limits on industrial discharges into the water.
In conclusion, the 20th century witnessed a significant shift in awareness and action for environmental protection. Grassroots activism, increasing ecological consciousness, and severe pollution incidents prompted legislation and initiatives to tackle air and water pollution and protect wildlife habitats and open spaces.
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Air pollution: a major cause of climate change
Air pollution has been a problem since the appearance of our earliest ancestors. Even in prehistoric times, when humans created the first fires, soot found on the ceilings of prehistoric caves provides evidence of high levels of pollution associated with inadequate ventilation. However, the problem of air pollution has become significantly worse over time, with the Industrial Revolution marking a notable turning point.
The burning of fossil fuels releases tiny particles called aerosols into the atmosphere. These aerosols help clouds form and can cause warming or cooling effects on the climate. While low clouds reflect incoming solar radiation away from Earth, high clouds trap heat within the atmosphere. Overall, the warming effect of greenhouse gases is larger than the cooling effect of aerosols.
Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, ozone, and methane, are a significant driver of climate change. Since the early 1900s, the increasing amounts of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere have caused the planet to warm. These gases come from vehicle exhaust, pollutants released from smokestacks at factories and power plants, emissions from agriculture, and other sources.
The health impacts of air pollution are significant, with air pollution being the leading environmental cause of illness and premature death worldwide. Diseases such as heart disease, stroke, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia, type 2 diabetes, and neonatal disorders are caused by fine air pollution particles. According to a 2010 analysis, around 1.2 million people died prematurely each year in China due to air pollution.
Addressing air pollution is crucial to tackling the climate challenge. Regulatory initiatives, partnership programs, and individual actions can help reduce air pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions, improving health outcomes and mitigating climate change.
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Water pollution: a global issue
Water pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. The increase in human population has led to more bacteria and diseases. During the Middle Ages, diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever spread across Europe due to unsanitary conditions caused by human and animal waste.
By the 1800s, the connection between unsanitary living conditions, water contamination, and disease epidemics was established. This prompted major cities to take measures to control waste and garbage. Chicago, for instance, built the first major sewage system in the United States in the mid-1850s to treat wastewater. However, as cities became more populated towards the end of the 19th century, industrialised cities in Europe and the United States faced a new challenge: waste from industries and factories.
The Industrial Revolution of the mid-19th century introduced new sources of water pollution. Factories began releasing pollutants directly into rivers and streams, and by the middle of the 20th century, the effects of these changes were being felt worldwide. The Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, became a symbol of the devastating impact of industrial pollution, as it caught fire multiple times between 1936 and 1969 due to the presence of debris and oil on its surface.
The Clean Water Act of 1972 was a significant legislative response to growing concerns about water pollution. This Act established standards for regulating the discharge of pollutants into US waterways and set quality standards for surface waters. Various pieces of anti-pollution legislation have been enacted since, and today, the US has relatively clean and safe drinking water compared to much of the world.
However, water pollution remains a pressing global issue. The 2021 World Water Development Report by UNESCO highlights that global freshwater usage has increased six-fold in the past century, growing by about 1% annually since the 1980s. This increasing water consumption has severely impacted water quality. Industrialisation, agricultural production, and urbanisation have led to environmental degradation and pollution of vital water bodies, adversely affecting human health and sustainable social development.
Climate change, water scarcity, population growth, and urbanisation further exacerbate the challenges faced in ensuring safe and sufficient water supplies. Addressing water pollution and improving water quality require urgent attention and coordinated action to prevent a global water crisis.
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Frequently asked questions
Pollution has been around since the appearance of our earliest ancestors. However, it became a more significant problem when permanent settlements were established, and even more so with the advent of the Industrial Revolution.
Soot found on the ceilings of prehistoric caves indicates high levels of indoor pollution associated with the inadequate ventilation of open fires. Metal forging and the burning of coal also contributed to early air pollution.
By the middle of the 20th century, the general public became increasingly aware of the need to protect the environment from pollution. Publications such as Rachel Carson's book *Silent Spring* in 1962 brought attention to environmental damage, leading to the passing of major environmental legislation in many countries.
Some notable incidents of pollution include the Great Stink on the Thames in 1858, the Cuyahoga River fires between 1936 and 1969, and the severe air pollution in Donora, Pennsylvania in 1948. These incidents spurred the creation of legislation and activism devoted to addressing pollution.
