Kiera Jefferson
During the late 1800s, cities across Europe and the United States were experiencing a new kind of pollution: waste from industries and factories. This was a result of rapid urban industrialization, technological innovation, and consumer culture. As cities grew in size and complexity, pollution of air, water, and soil multiplied. Air pollution from industrial processes and the burning of coal in factories and homes became a serious problem, with episodes of smog in cities like New York and London resulting in many deaths. Water pollution also intensified during this time, as factories began releasing chemical waste and other pollutants directly into rivers and streams. While scientific understanding of the health risks associated with pollution grew, social inequalities in exposure to pollution persisted along lines of race, ethnicity, class, and gender.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Understanding of the causes of disease | By the 1800s, people began to understand that unsanitary living conditions and water contamination contributed to disease epidemics |
| Population growth | By 1900, there were 43 cities worldwide with more than 500,000 people, up from just 6 in 1800 |
| Industrialization | The proliferation of coal-burning industrial cities from the late 18th century onwards led to increased air pollution |
| Urbanization | Improved connectivity and commuter links allowed cities' populations to spread into surrounding suburban areas, reducing population density |
| Technological innovation | The shift to centralized factories and fossil fuels eliminated constraints on urban expansion |
| Policy responses | The UK introduced its Public Health Act for London in 1891, which included financial penalties for businesses that did not adopt cleaner energy practices |
| Social movements | Societies emerged to campaign against the smoke scourge, including the Committee for the Consumption of Smoke at Leeds and the Manchester Association for the Prevention of Smoke |
| Health impacts | Industrial pollution was a major cause of mortality in the 19th century, particularly in urban areas, with growing industrial coal use reducing life expectancy |
| Water pollution | The discovery of oil in 1859 led to the construction of refineries along the Schuylkill River, contributing to water pollution |
| Sanitation | In the mid-1850s, Chicago built the first major sewage system in the US to treat wastewater, improving sanitary conditions and encouraging urbanization |
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What You'll Learn
Air pollution from coal burning
During the late 1800s, cities across Europe and the United States were experiencing a new kind of pollution: industrial waste and factory emissions. The burning of coal, a fossil fuel, was a significant contributor to air pollution in these cities.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the coal industry in Great Britain expanded rapidly due to economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks. This led to a rapid increase in national coal consumption, with prices nearly halving between 1820 and 1850. As a result, coal became the dominant source of energy for powering industries, particularly in cities like London, Manchester, and New York, which were often referred to as the "Big Smoke".
The burning of coal released smoke and pollutants into the air, creating a "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) that had severe health impacts on residents. Contemporary observers noticed the immediate effects of poor air quality, including coughs, stinging eyes, and perpetual gloom. This prompted the introduction of regulations such as the Public Health Act for London in 1891, which imposed financial penalties on businesses that did not adopt cleaner energy practices.
By the late 1800s, improved connectivity and commuter links allowed populations to spread into surrounding suburban areas, reducing population density and exposure to pollution hotspots. Additionally, there was a notable shift from coal towards gas for heating and cooking, with the uptake of gas cookers rising sharply in Great Britain during this period. Gas is a much cleaner fuel relative to coal, contributing to a declining trend in air pollution.
Overall, the late 1800s marked a critical period in the history of air pollution, with cities experiencing the detrimental effects of coal burning and taking initial steps towards pollution control and environmental regulation.
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Water pollution from industrial waste
During the late 1800s, cities across Europe and the United States experienced a new kind of pollution: water pollution from industrial waste. This was a result of the rapid industrialisation and urbanisation that was taking place, which also led to worsening living conditions and sanitation in many cities. As cities became more populated, they were overwhelmed by the influx of new residents, and methods of sewage disposal and water supplies were placed under severe pressure.
Rivers were a common dumping ground for industrial waste, with corporations using waterways not only for power but also for waste disposal. Cities also contributed to the problem by disposing of untreated sewage waste into local streams and rivers. This led to worsening water quality and an increased risk of waterborne diseases such as cholera. Even rainwater was often unsafe to drink, as it had fallen through the smoke and pollution from factories.
Manchester, a rapidly expanding industrial city, is a notable example of the water pollution issues of the time. Manchester's manufacturing industries dumped gallons of contaminated water and tonnes of solid waste into the rivers. The textile dye-works were some of the worst offenders, despite relying on a pure water source for their operations. The sewers in Manchester, which had undergone design innovations in the mid-19th century, were still releasing untreated waste directly into the city's rivers.
The issues of water pollution and sanitation were not limited to Manchester, however. In the United States, Chicago built the first major sewage system in the mid-1850s to treat wastewater, and other cities soon followed suit. This was a response to the growing understanding that unsanitary living conditions and water contamination contributed to disease epidemics. Similar issues were faced in London, which was often referred to as the "Big Smoke" due to its severe air pollution. The dispersal of the population to surrounding suburban areas, as well as the introduction of financial penalties for excessive smoke production, helped to reduce pollution levels in the city.
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Urbanisation and population growth
The impact of urbanisation on pollution was not limited to the atmosphere. Water pollution also became a significant issue in the late 1800s. As cities grew, the amount of domestic waste increased, and industrial activities generated new unwanted byproducts that contaminated water sources. For example, refineries built along the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia discharged waste directly into the river, leading to toxic runoff.
The understanding of the link between urbanisation, population growth, and pollution was already developing in the late 1800s. It was recognised that unsanitary living conditions and water contamination contributed to disease epidemics. This awareness prompted cities to take measures to control waste and improve sanitary conditions, such as the construction of sewage systems. However, these efforts were often not enough to keep up with the increasing volume and diversity of pollutants introduced by industrial capitalism.
The late 1800s also saw the emergence of social movements and scientific research aimed at addressing the adverse impacts of pollution on human health. The first air pollution control district in the United States was established in California in 1947, and the UK introduced its Public Health Act for London in 1891, encouraging businesses to adopt cleaner energy practices.
While pollution in the late 1800s was a significant issue, it is important to note that it was not the only factor contributing to unhealthy living conditions in cities. The cumulative impact of pollution and attempts to curb it have historically been unequal along lines of race, ethnicity, class, and gender, with certain groups bearing a disproportionate burden. Additionally, the expansion of transportation networks and the increase in carriage and foot traffic contributed to soiled air and unsanitary conditions in cities.
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Sanitation and waste management
During the late 1800s, cities across Europe and the United States were experiencing a new kind of pollution: waste from industries and factories. This was a period of rapid urbanization, as new and expanding industries caused villages and towns to swell, sometimes into vast cities. For example, the population of the Port of Liverpool rose from a couple of thousand to tens of thousands in a century. Manchester, another industrial city, experienced a similar population explosion.
These towns and cities became hotbeds of disease, with unsanitary living conditions and contaminated water contributing to disease epidemics. In the mid-1850s, Chicago built the first major sewage system in the United States to treat wastewater, and other U.S. cities soon followed suit. Improved sanitary conditions and better public health were important factors in making cities healthier places to live, encouraging people to move to urban areas.
The concept of waste management is not new, with archaeological sites and ancient texts providing evidence of waste management systems in ancient civilizations like the Roman Empire and the Maya of Central America. These often included the collection and selling of waste, with households utilizing these services required to pay. However, access to these early waste management systems was often limited to higher socioeconomic classes.
The Industrial Revolution led to a rapid deterioration in sanitation in urban areas, particularly in England. This was due to the unprecedented scale of waste generation, with industrialization creating waste on a previously unimagined scale. The production and disposal of goods became part of the same process, with new manufacturing methods allowing the mass production of cheap consumer goods. This interrupted the traditional cultural framework where individuals and families valued handiwork and the maintenance of their possessions for years or generations.
The first organized solid waste management system appeared in London in the late 18th century with the 'dust-yards' system. This system worked successfully until the middle of the 19th century when the market value of 'dust' or coal ash collapsed. This facilitated the transition to an institutionalized, municipally-run solid waste management system. The first incinerator was built in Nottingham in 1874, and New York City became the first U.S. city with public-sector garbage management in 1895.
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Health impacts and mortality rates
During the late 1800s, pollution was a significant concern in many industrialised cities. The rapid industrialisation and urbanisation of this period led to various pollution issues that severely impacted public health and the environment. Air pollution, water pollution, and noise pollution were some of the key issues faced by cities during this time.
Air Pollution
Industrial activities, such as coal burning in factories and homes, resulted in high levels of air pollution. Smoke, soot, and harmful gases from factories and chimneys darkened the skies and caused respiratory problems among the urban population. Cities like London, New York, and Liverpool were shrouded in smog—a combination of smoke and fog—which resulted in many deaths. The mortality rate from bronchitis in London, for example, increased from 25 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants in 1840 to a staggering 300 deaths per 100,000 in 1890. At its peak, one out of every 350 people died from bronchitis in London.
Water Pollution
The increase in industrial production led to the discharge of untreated industrial waste into rivers and streams, contaminating water sources. Factories often dumped toxic chemicals and industrial byproducts directly into these water bodies, causing water pollution and harming aquatic life. Many cities relied on these polluted water sources for drinking and bathing, leading to the rapid spread of waterborne diseases. The famous case of the Cuyahoga River in Ohio, which caught fire multiple times between 1936 and 1969 due to the accumulation of debris and oil, highlights the severity of water pollution during this period.
The pollution of the late 1800s had significant health impacts on the population, increasing mortality rates, especially in urban areas. Respiratory problems, such as bronchitis, were prevalent due to the high levels of air pollution. Additionally, waterborne diseases spread rapidly due to contaminated water sources. The constant noise generated by factories, machinery, and transportation systems also had detrimental effects on human health and well-being.
Studies have shown that industrial pollution played a significant role in increasing mortality rates during this period. Research on 19th-century Britain found that industrial pollution explained 30-40% of the relationship between mortality and population density in the 1850s and nearly 60% in 1900. Growing industrial coal use during this period reduced life expectancy by at least 0.57 years. Another study estimated that the value of this loss of life was equal to at least 0.33-1.00 of the annual GDP in 1900.
While quantitative evidence of the health impacts of pollution in the late 1800s can be challenging to obtain, the effects were undoubtedly severe. The high mortality rates in industrial cities during this period can be at least partially attributed to the pollution generated by rapid industrialisation and the lack of effective regulations to control it.
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Frequently asked questions
The main sources of pollution in cities during the late 1800s were industrial processes, the burning of coal in factories and homes, and waste from industries and factories. As cities grew in size, people generated more domestic waste, and industries continued to produce new unwanted byproducts.
London was one of the most polluted cities during the late 1800s, often referred to as the "Big Smoke". Other polluted cities included New York, Liverpool, and Widnes.
Pollution had serious health impacts on residents, with episodes of "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) resulting in many deaths. People also experienced sanitation and health problems, and there was a correlation between the presence of industrial pollution and poor health.
During the late 1800s, there was an increasing social and scientific understanding of the ill health effects of pollution on residents. This spurred social movements and scientific research aimed at curbing pollution and addressing its adverse impacts on human health. Some cities also began to implement measures to control waste and garbage, and improve sanitary conditions.
