Helena Joyce
The world is facing a climate catastrophe and scientists warn that time is running out to reduce planet-heating emissions. In 2022, countries released over 50 billion metric tons of CO2 into the Earth's atmosphere, with just a few nations responsible for the majority of emissions. While China was the largest climate polluter in 2022, the United States has emitted the most over time. India, the European Union, and Germany are also among the top polluters. These countries' responses to the climate crisis will have a significant impact on the rest of the world.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Country with the highest CO2 emissions | China |
| Second-highest CO2 emissions | USA |
| Third-highest CO2 emissions | India |
| Country with the highest per capita carbon dioxide emissions | Qatar |
| Other countries with high per capita emissions | United States, Australia, Canada, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates |
| Country with the highest CO2 emissions in Europe | Germany |
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What You'll Learn
China's extensive use of coal
China is the world's largest consumer, producer, and importer of coal, with its consumption and production accounting for around half of the global totals. In 2020, China produced 3.84 billion tons of coal, and in 2021, its coal production "hit record highs", according to Reuters. China's coal reserves are concentrated in Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, and Shaanxi provinces, and the country produces around 90% of the coal it consumes.
The extensive use of coal in China can be traced back thousands of years. Historians suspect that ancient people in what is now China started using coal around 6,000 years ago, with the earliest coal mine in the ancient world, the Fushan mine, dating back to around 1000 BC. In the 3rd century BC, the Chinese began burning coal for heat, and in the late 11th century, a timber shortage in north China led to a rapid expansion in coal mining and consumption. By 1000 AD, Chinese mines were ahead of most mining advancements globally.
Today, coal is widely used in China for generating electricity, producing heat, and as an industrial feedstock. In 2020, 60% of coal was used for electricity and heat generation, with the industrial sector, particularly the steel industry, accounting for an additional one-third of demand. China is home to the world's largest fleet of coal-fired power plants, and in 2021, coal accounted for 56% of the country's total energy consumption, a slight decrease from 57% in 2020 and 64% in 2015.
Despite China's rapid growth in renewable energy in recent years, its absolute level of coal use has continued to rise. In 2021, China added 26.8 GW of coal capacity, and new coal mines and coal-fired power plants continue to be built on a significant scale. Concerns about energy security and power sector reliability are among the reasons for the continued expansion of China's coal industry.
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The US's heavy reliance on fossil fuels
The US is one of the world's top polluters, largely due to its heavy reliance on fossil fuels. Fossil fuels—petroleum, natural gas, and coal—accounted for about 84% of total US primary energy production in 2023. While the US has made some progress in reducing its fossil fuel consumption, it still has a long way to go to meet the IPCC carbon reduction goals.
The US has a diverse energy landscape, with many different sources and types of energy in play. In 2023, the country's total primary energy consumption was about 94 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu). Fossil fuels make up a significant portion of this, with petroleum providing about 89% of the transportation sector's primary energy consumption. In contrast, it contributed to less than 1% of the electric power sector's primary energy consumption.
The US has made some strides towards reducing its reliance on fossil fuels. Between 2018 and 2023, US clean generation capacity increased by 40% to 438 Gigawatts (GW). During the same period, US firms reduced fossil fuel capacity by around 4%, primarily by shutting down outdated coal plants. Coal-fired generation dropped by 34% from 2019 to 2024, and coal's share of the US generation mix decreased from 25% to 15%.
However, the US still has a significant fossil fuel dependence. In 2022, 74% of US GHG emissions came from burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuel-fired generation in the first nine months of 2024 was only 0.8% lower than in the same period in 2019. This indicates a slow decline in fossil fuel usage. Additionally, while coal-fired generation has decreased, gas-fired generation has increased by 20% in the same period, offsetting the drop in coal output.
To meet decarbonisation goals and establish itself as a leader in climate action, the US must aggressively develop a clean capacity pipeline that shifts the country's generation mix away from fossil fuels. The Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) provides incentives for renewable energy development, and the US has committed to tripling renewable energy generation capacity by 2030. These efforts are crucial for reducing the country's heavy reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating climate change.
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India's rising emissions
India is one of the world's biggest polluters, with emissions that are rising steeply. It is often mentioned in the same breath as China, but the two countries are quite different. India is much earlier in its development trajectory and has contributed very little to historical emissions. The country of more than 1.4 billion people has far lower per capita emissions than China and is still dealing with high levels of poverty.
India's per capita carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have soared in recent decades, climbing from roughly 0.4 metric tons in 1970 to a high of 2.07 metric tons in 2023. This was an increase of 6.7 percent compared to 2022 levels. India's total CO2 emissions also reached a record high in 2023, making it one of the world's biggest CO2 emitters, behind only China and the United States.
One of the main reasons for India's high emissions is the country's reliance on coal, the most polluting of fossil fuels. India's CO emissions from coal totalled more than 1.8 billion metric tons in 2022, a fivefold increase from 1990 levels. Coal production and imports reached a record high in the first half of 2024, driven by rising electricity demand during another year of record summer heat. India's fossil CO2 emissions have nearly tripled, reaching a record high of 2.7 GtCO2 in 2022. The power sector was the largest emitter in India in 2022, followed by the agriculture and manufacturing sectors.
Despite India's progress and commitment to clean energy, its ambitious climate goals are being undermined by its continued dependence on coal. India is planning to increase coal output to meet the growing energy demands brought on by surging industrialization and urbanization, as well as increased spending power. As a result, the world's most populous country now faces the challenge of balancing economic growth with decarbonization. India has ambitious renewable energy plans, aiming for a share of installed capacity of 57% and 66% in 2026-27 and 2031-32, respectively. However, these plans will require international support to get onto a 1.5°C pathway.
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Qatar, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia's oil industries
While China, the USA, and the EU are the world's top polluters, Qatar, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia also have significant oil industries that contribute to global emissions.
QatarEnergy, formerly Qatar Petroleum, is a state-owned company that operates all oil and gas activities in Qatar, including exploration, production, refining, transport, and storage. Qatar was the first Persian Gulf state to build its own petrochemical industry, establishing the Qatar Petrochemical Co. (QAPCO) in 1974. Oil and gas revenues amount to 60% of the country's GDP. As of 2018, QatarEnergy was the third-largest oil company in the world by oil and gas reserves, and in 2021, it was the fifth-largest gas company.
The Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC) runs oil refineries across Kuwait, while the Kuwait Petroleum International (KPI or "Q8") operates a refining and marketing business overseas. Kuwait also has other companies involved in the oil industry, such as the Petrochemicals Industries Company (PIC), which manufactures petrochemicals and fertilizers, and the Kuwait Oil Tanker Company (KOTC), which handles crude oil shipping.
In Saudi Arabia, the search for oil began in the 1920s, with the king signing a concession with Holmes to search for oil in eastern Saudi Arabia. In 1927, Gulf Oil took control of the concessions, but due to the "Red Line Agreement," they were unable to take up the Bahrain concession, and it was transferred to Standard Oil of California (SOCAL). In 1939, the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO) gained a larger area for searching for oil and extended its concession until 1949. ARAMCO agreed to provide the Saudi Arabian government with free kerosene and gasoline and higher payments. In 1988, ARAMCO was officially bought out by Saudi Arabia and became Saudi Aramco.
The oil industries in Qatar, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia contribute to global emissions, with a heavy reliance on fossil fuels being a significant factor in pollution. While these countries may not be among the top polluters, their oil industries have a notable environmental impact, and these countries have a responsibility to address their carbon footprint and support environmental projects.
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Germany's high CO2 emissions
Germany is the European country with the highest CO2 emissions, contributing to over a quarter of the entire European Union's CO2 emissions. Germany's high emissions can be attributed to its heavy dependence on coal, its early industrialisation, and its intense coal use. Germany has a joint nationally determined contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement, which includes a target for cutting emissions.
Germany's greenhouse gas emissions in 2023 were 672.8 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e), according to a database published in Scientific Data by Dr Matthew Jones of the University of East Anglia and collaborators. This figure includes emissions from land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF). Per capita, this amounts to an average of 8.1tCO2e per person in 2023, which is higher than the global per-capita average of 6.7tCO2e and also substantially higher than other large European nations, such as France and Italy. Germany is the sixth-largest historical emitter of CO2.
Germany's first national climate law, passed in 2019 and amended in 2021 and 2024, contains annual emission budgets for individual sectors such as industry and transport until 2030. These budgets are set in line with wider European greenhouse gas emission reduction plans. Germany has set a target of achieving net-negative emissions by 2060 and also aims to introduce specific targets for technical carbon sinks, such as capturing CO2 directly from the air and storing it underground permanently.
Germany's heavy industry sector is responsible for 23% of emissions, making it the second-largest emitter in the country. The building sector has achieved Germany's third-largest emission reductions, with a 44% reduction since 1990. However, building emissions have largely stagnated since 2011, and Germany is far from reaching its target of a "nearly" climate-neutral building stock by mid-century. Transport was responsible for 21.6% of total emissions in 2023, but reductions in this sector have proven difficult, with emissions remaining largely unchanged since 1990.
While Germany's emissions are high compared to other European countries, when compared to the top global emitters, it is not among the top three, which are China, the USA, and India.
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Frequently asked questions
China has been the biggest polluter in terms of total emissions since 2006. In 2023, China emitted 9.9 billion tonnes of CO2, accounting for nearly 30% of global emissions.
While China is the biggest polluter in terms of total emissions, the average American is responsible for nearly twice as much climate pollution per person. The country with the highest emissions per capita is Palau.
The largest part of these emissions comes from the use of fossil fuels, the generation of energy through non-renewable channels, and polluting human activities.
