Brian Barton
Singapore has been ranked as the worst environmental offender among 179 countries due to its rapid development into an urban nation. The country faces a range of environmental issues, including air pollution, and water pollution, and waste management problems. Singapore's air pollution, which comes primarily from traffic and industry, poses a significant risk to public health. The country has implemented various measures to combat this, including the Singapore Green Plan 2030, which aims to monitor the populations of fauna and flora and establish new nature parks. Singapore also uses the Pollution Standards Index (PSI) to monitor air quality and has achieved its 2020 air quality targets for nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and PM2.5. In addition, the country has incentive schemes to encourage the adoption of cleaner vehicles and the phase-out of older, more pollutive ones.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Air Quality Index (AQI) | 55 (Moderate) |
| Air Pollution Ranking | 94/138 |
| Average PM2.5 concentration | 19 µg/m³ |
| Pollution Sources | Traffic, Industry, Forest Fires |
| Pollutants | PM2.5, PM10, Carbon Monoxide, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide |
| CO2 Emissions Sources | Fossil Fuels, Cement Production, Coal, Oil, Gas, Gas Flaring |
| Other Greenhouse Gases | Methane, Nitrous Oxide, F-Gases |
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What You'll Learn
Air pollution from vehicles, power stations, and industries
Singapore's urban development has been criticised for neglecting the natural environment. The country has limited water resources and has faced air pollution from vehicles, power stations, and industries.
Vehicles are a major source of air pollution in Singapore. The country has strict regulations and fuel quality standards for vehicle emissions, and all new vehicles must meet minimum emission standards. In 2017, Singapore adopted the Euro VI standards for petrol vehicle emissions, which aim to reduce emissions of PM2.5, nitrous dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. The National Environment Agency (NEA) has also approved the supply of near sulphur-free diesel and cleaner petrol. Singapore has implemented incentive schemes such as the Vehicular Emissions Scheme (VES) and the Early Turnover Scheme (ETS) to encourage the adoption of cleaner passenger cars and the phase-out of older, more pollutive commercial vehicles. From 2030, Singapore will stop registering new internal combustion engine passenger vehicles.
Power stations and industries also contribute to air pollution in Singapore. The country has comprehensive measures in place to ensure that these sources of pollution are sited away from residential areas and meet strict emission standards. Industrial facilities must incorporate pollution control measures and are regularly monitored to ensure they comply with NEA's air emissions standards.
In addition to local sources of air pollution, Singapore is affected by transboundary haze from land and forest fires in neighbouring countries, particularly Indonesia. This haze can cause respiratory issues and increase hospital admissions. Singapore works closely with ASEAN to develop measures for transboundary haze management and is a party to the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution.
Singapore's air quality index is the Pollution Standards Index (PSI), which measures the density of six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2). In 2019, Singapore's average PM2.5 concentration exceeded the World Health Organisation's recommended target, indicating that sensitive individuals should avoid outdoor activity. Singapore has been taking steps to improve its air quality and reduce pollution from various sources.
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Water pollution from industrial facilities and oil from trading vessels
Singapore's rapid urban development has neglected the natural environment, according to a report by the National University of Singapore. The country's limited water resources mean that water quality must be carefully regulated. Water in Singapore is polluted by unwanted materials from industrial facilities, coupled with oil from trading vessels.
The Straits of Singapore is considered one of the world's hotspots for oil spills, with 39 spills totalling at least 34 tonnes since 1960. In 1972, the Shell supertanker Myrtea ran aground, leaking 1,000 tonnes of crude oil and causing a two-mile-long oil slick that washed up on Singapore's beaches. More recently, in 2014, three ship collisions resulted in 760 tonnes of fuel oil being spilled, polluting the beach waters of Kusu and St John's Island. In 2020, two shipping companies were charged with discharging 100 litres of oil each into Singapore's waters.
Singapore's busy shipping lanes and status as a marine bunkering and oil refining centre make it highly vulnerable to oil spills. The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (MPA) has implemented measures to address this issue, but oil pollution from vessels remains a significant concern.
In addition to oil spills, industrial facilities in Singapore also contribute to water pollution. To address this, the Public Utilities Board (PUB) has implemented regulations for industries to ensure proper waste disposal and prevent chemicals and silt from being washed into waterways. Singapore's Sewerage and Drainage Act and Sewerage and Drainage (Trade Effluent) Regulations aim to control the discharge of prohibited substances and high concentrations of regulated substances, which can impact water treatment operations and the production of NEWater.
The country has also implemented the Singapore Green Plan 2030, which aims to monitor the populations of fauna and flora, establish new nature parks, and connect existing ones. Singapore is taking steps to address water pollution from industrial facilities and oil spills from trading vessels, but it continues to face challenges due to its rapid urban development and vulnerable geographical position.
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Haze from forest fires in neighbouring countries
Singapore has experienced haze pollution from forest fires in neighbouring countries, primarily Indonesia, since the 1970s. One of the worst haze outbreaks occurred in 1972 when visibility was as low as 1 to 2 kilometres across parts of the island. The haze was caused by forest fires started by shifting cultivators in Palembang and South Kalimantan, Indonesia, and it lasted for about two weeks. Sporadic haze was reported over Singapore in the 1980s, generally caused by dry weather conditions and occasional bushfires in Singapore, as well as forest fires in Indonesia.
The 1990s saw some of the worst haze outbreaks in Singapore, particularly in 1997 when large-scale burning of forested land in Indonesia, exacerbated by El Niño conditions, led to severe haze. The haze caused economic losses of between S$97.5 million and S$110.5 million, with impacts on the tourism industry and an increase in respiratory and haze-related ailments among Singaporeans. In response to the 1997 haze, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) introduced the Regional Haze Action Plan to prevent forest fires and mitigate their impacts. Singapore played a monitoring role in this plan, providing satellite pictures and coordinates of fire hotspots to Indonesian authorities.
Haze events in Singapore have also been attributed to fires in Malaysia, with Malaysian firefighters being deployed to Indonesia during the 1997 haze to support response efforts. The burning of peatlands, which have high carbon content and are highly susceptible to burning, has been identified as a major contributor to the haze. Industrial-scale slash-and-burn practices for agricultural purposes, particularly for palm oil and pulpwood production, have also been implicated in the haze's occurrence.
The haze from forest fires in neighbouring countries has had significant impacts on Singapore, including damage to tourism, industrial production losses, and increased healthcare costs associated with respiratory illnesses. It has also led to school closures and affected the confidence of foreign investors. While efforts have been made to mitigate haze events, challenges remain in implementing these measures effectively.
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High carbon emissions
Singapore has been criticised for its high carbon emissions, which are among the highest in the world. In 1996, the country emitted 65.8 metric tons of carbon dioxide. The main sources of air pollution in Singapore are vehicles, power stations, and other industries.
Singapore's rapid development into an urban nation has led to a neglect of the natural environment, according to a report by the National University of Singapore. The country's limited land size and high-intensity land use have resulted in a high carbon footprint. Singapore's educational system has also been criticised for its lack of focus on environmental education, which may contribute to the country's high carbon emissions.
To address the issue of high carbon emissions, Singapore has implemented various measures. The country has strict emission standards for vehicles and industries, and new vehicles must meet minimum emission standards at the point of registration and during use. Singapore also has a Vehicular Emissions Scheme (VES), a Commercial Vehicle Emissions Scheme (CVES), and an Early Turnover Scheme (ETS) to encourage the adoption of cleaner vehicles and phase out older, more pollutive ones. Industrial facilities are screened before they are allowed to operate to ensure they meet NEA's air emissions standards, and they are regularly monitored once operational.
Despite these efforts, Singapore continues to face challenges in reducing its carbon emissions. The country has a limited number of landfills, which has led to an increase in incineration to manage waste. While incineration reduces the volume of waste, it also releases pollutants into the air, including NOx, SO2, dioxins, and particulate matter. Singapore's Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment has set a target of achieving a 70% recycling rate by 2030 to reduce waste and minimise pollution.
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Lack of environmental education in schools
Singapore's rapid development into an urban nation has resulted in a range of environmental issues, with the country facing problems related to air pollution, as well as high carbon emissions. In 1996, Singapore emitted 65.8 metric tons of carbon dioxide, ranking among the highest emission levels globally. The country's air pollution has been linked to adverse health effects, with studies indicating a correlation between high Pollution Standards Index (PSI) levels and increased short-term mortality risks.
While Singapore has implemented initiatives such as the Singapore Green Plan 2030 to address these issues, there have been criticisms of a lack of environmental education in schools. Currently, there are no policy documents outlining the environmental topics that should be included in the curriculum. This has led to concerns that while students excel in standardised tests, they may not be acquiring adequate environmental values and knowledge.
Indeed, an analysis of secondary school history textbooks revealed utilitarian, negativistic, and dominionistic perspectives on the non-human environment. However, it is important to note that environmental education is integrated into multiple subjects at different levels. For instance, primary school students learn about conservation and the negative impacts of pollution, global warming, and deforestation on the environment. At the secondary level, students delve deeper into issues like natural resource depletion, environmental impact, and waste disposal. They also examine solutions for environmental sustainability and develop an understanding of the importance of conservation.
Nevertheless, the absence of a standardised environmental education curriculum across all schools may result in inconsistencies in the knowledge and values imparted to students. This could potentially hinder their ability to make informed decisions and contribute to environmental protection in the future. As such, there are calls for the Ministry of Education to collaborate with environmental groups to create a standardised environmental education package.
One notable initiative is the Eco Stewardship Programme, piloted in four schools, including Tampines Secondary School. This programme aims to instill sustainable habits in students by incorporating environmental sustainability concepts into the curriculum. For example, students at Tampines Secondary learn about renewable energy, food waste, and carbon footprints. They are also encouraged to participate in school-based initiatives, such as recycling programmes and upcycling projects, empowering them to take ownership of their environmental impact.
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Frequently asked questions
The main sources of air pollution in Singapore are vehicles, power stations, and industries.
The Singapore air quality index is the Pollution Standards Index (PSI) — an alternative to the Air Quality Index (AQI) used in many other countries. The PSI gives a score based on the density of six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2).
Air pollution has been shown to pose a significant risk to public health in Singapore, with links to increased short-term mortality and respiratory illnesses. During haze events caused by smoke from regional fires, residents may experience coughing, sneezing, and eye irritation.
Singapore has implemented various measures to address air pollution, including strict emission standards for vehicles and industries, incentive schemes to promote cleaner cars and commercial vehicles, and the Singapore Green Plan, which aims to monitor flora and fauna populations and expand nature parks.
