Meghan Hodges
Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials, or pollutants, into the environment. These pollutants can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). While pollution can be caused by natural events, the word generally implies that the contaminants have a human source, such as manufacturing, extractive industries, poor waste management, transportation, or agriculture. Human activities such as burning fossil fuels and mass deforestation have led to an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, causing climate change. This has, in turn, intensified the effects of some pollutants, such as smog, which is exacerbated by increased heat and ultraviolet radiation.
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What You'll Learn
- Air pollution: the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere
- Chemical pollution: the introduction of novel entities into the environment
- Electromagnetic pollution: an overabundance of electromagnetic radiation
- Light pollution: over-illumination, light trespass, and astronomical interference
- Land pollution: contamination of land with harmful materials
Air pollution: the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere
Air pollution is the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. It is one of the major forms of pollution, alongside water pollution, litter, noise pollution, plastic pollution, and soil contamination. The word "pollution" generally implies that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source, meaning they are created by human activities.
Air pollution has been a concern since ancient times, when the use of coal for fuel caused significant air pollution. Today, human activities such as burning fossil fuels, mass deforestation, and industrial processes contribute to the increase of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These gases trap heat, leading to climate change and its associated impacts, including rising sea levels, more extreme weather, and heat-related deaths.
Primary pollutants are produced directly by a source and remain in the same chemical form after being emitted into the atmosphere. Examples include carbon monoxide from car exhausts and sulfur dioxide from factories. Secondary pollutants, on the other hand, are formed in the air through the reaction of primary pollutants with each other or with other atmospheric components. Ground-level ozone, a major component of smog, is an example of a secondary pollutant.
Particulate matter (PM) is a type of air pollution that includes all airborne substances that are not gases. It consists of a mix of microscopic solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in a gas. The size of these particles varies, with coarse particles measuring 10 micrometers or smaller in diameter, fine particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers, and ultrafine particles measuring less than 0.1 micrometers. These smaller particles can penetrate the lungs and bloodstream, leading to increased health risks, including respiratory issues, cardiovascular problems, and cognitive decline.
Vehicle emissions, fuel oils, natural gas, industrial processes, and power generation are significant sources of human-made air pollution. The combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, gasoline, and natural gas, releases pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs, which include chemicals like methane, acetone, and benzene, are of particular concern due to their cancer-causing properties.
The impacts of air pollution are widespread and affect both human health and the environment. It is estimated that air pollution causes approximately seven million deaths globally each year, with vulnerable populations, such as children, the elderly, and marginalized communities, bearing the brunt of these health consequences. Additionally, air pollution contributes to climate change, leading to global warming and altering climate patterns worldwide.
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Chemical pollution: the introduction of novel entities into the environment
The word "pollution" generally implies that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source, or a source created by human activities. Human activities such as burning fossil fuels and mass deforestation lead to an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which traps heat inside the atmosphere through a process called the greenhouse effect.
Chemical pollution, specifically, refers to the introduction of novel entities (NEs) into the environment. More than 100 million novel entity chemicals are in circulation, and the environmental and human health effects of this widespread contamination of the biosphere are not widely appreciated. The industrial economy has created more than 100 million novel entities, with somewhere between 40,000 and 350,000 in commercial use and production.
Novel entities include chemical and plastic pollution, and they have been identified as one of nine planetary boundaries, but not quantified. The production and diversification of synthetic chemicals have outpaced other critical planetary boundaries, including climate change, land use, and biodiversity loss. The release of heavy metals, radioactive waste, pesticides, and other persistent organic pollutants (POPs) into the environment can pollute air, soil, and water, directly affecting the freshwater, atmospheric aerosol, and biodiversity boundaries.
The chemicals industry is currently the third-largest global CO2 emitter, and this $5 trillion industry is predicted to double by 2030. Plastic debris in the environment can pick up other pollutants and distribute them far and wide, making microplastics a nexus for a lot of other environmental issues. For example, plastics can absorb toxic, human-health-impacting chemicals like polyaromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, flame retardants, and PFAS.
PFAS, or "forever chemicals", have been found in nearly all humans tested and are now so ubiquitous that in many locations, even rainwater contains levels regarded as unsafe to drink. More than 90% of the global population breathes air that breaches World Health Organization (WHO) pollution guidelines. When these chemicals contaminate our bodies, the results can be disastrous, with correlational or causal data linking widely used chemicals with threats to human reproductive, immune, neurological, cardiovascular, respiratory, liver, kidney, and metabolic systems.
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Electromagnetic pollution: an overabundance of electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic pollution refers to an overabundance of electromagnetic radiation in its non-ionizing form, such as radio and television transmissions, Wi-fi, power transmission lines, and everyday devices like smartphones, tablets, and computers. This type of pollution is a relatively modern phenomenon, with the term "pollution" in the environmental sense rarely used before the 1860s.
While there is no definitive evidence of its negative impact on humans, electromagnetic pollution has been linked to potential health risks. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have classified radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" (Group 2B), indicating a credible association between exposure and disease. This classification is based on an increased risk of glioma and acoustic neuroma associated with wireless phone use. However, it is important to note that the group designation does not rule out confounding effects with reasonable confidence.
The influence of electromagnetic pollution on living organisms has been a subject of scientific research, with studies investigating its effects on bacteria, E. coli, nematodes, land snails, fruit flies, and frogs. While the opinions of researchers are divided, some studies have indicated negative, positive, or neutral influences of electromagnetic fields and radiation on living organisms. Additionally, extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields have been classified as potentially carcinogenic, and general eye irritation and cataracts have been reported in workers exposed to high levels of radiofrequency and microwave radiation.
To address public health concerns, the WHO launched the International EMF Project in 1996 to study the health effects of increasing exposure to diverse electromagnetic field sources. Despite feelings that more research is needed, the scientific knowledge in this area is now extensive. The WHO concluded in 2014 that "a large number of studies have been performed over the last two decades to assess whether mobile phones pose a potential health risk. To date, no adverse health effects have been established as being caused by mobile phone use."
Standards and guidelines have been set by national and international bodies to limit overexposure to electromagnetic fields and protect against known health effects. These guidelines are based on the latest scientific knowledge and are periodically reviewed and updated. For example, the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) evaluates scientific results from around the world and produces guidelines recommending limits on exposure.
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Light pollution: over-illumination, light trespass, and astronomical interference
Light pollution is a side-effect of industrial civilization, caused by the inefficient or unnecessary use of artificial light. It is most severe in highly industrialized, densely populated areas of North America, Europe, Asia, and major cities in the Middle East and North Africa. It is estimated that 83% of the world's population lives under light-polluted skies.
Light pollution has multiple adverse consequences, including disrupting nocturnal ecosystems, interfering with astronomical research, wasting energy, and compromising human health and safety. It can disorient migrating birds, disrupt the mating and sleeping patterns of animals, and negatively impact plant phenology.
Over-illumination is a specific category of light pollution, characterized by excessive artificial lighting that results in a glow across the field of view, reducing contrast with the night sky. This can have aesthetic consequences, such as spoiling the wilderness experience and landscape beauty, and can also interfere with astronomical observatories and research. Over-illumination is particularly noticeable in highly industrialized and urban areas, with excessive lighting from buildings, advertising, streetlights, and sports venues.
Light trespass refers to the intrusion of unwanted artificial light onto neighbouring properties or areas. This can occur due to misdirected wall wash lighting, downlighting from trees, or over-lamped uplighting. Light trespass can make it difficult for visual observers to adapt to the dark, and can also cause glare, which limits a person's vision and can be unsafe.
Astronomical interference is another significant impact of light pollution. Artificial light competes with starlight, obscuring the night sky and interfering with astronomical research and observations. This can have cultural and spiritual implications, as many traditional societies incorporate the rhythms of the night sky into their practices and customs. The increasing number of artificial satellites is also a growing concern for the astronomical community, as they fear that light pollution from these sources will significantly increase.
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Land pollution: contamination of land with harmful materials
Land pollution refers to the contamination of land with harmful materials, which can damage human health and ecosystems. It is closely connected to air and water pollution.
Soil supports ecosystems and plays an important role in water and nutrient cycles. It sustains plant life, which other organisms depend on for nutrition, and it also supports human-created structures, such as buildings. However, pollution harms these vital resources.
Landfills, for example, are areas where waste is buried beneath layers of earth, and they can release methane, a powerful greenhouse gas that contributes to human-caused global warming and climate change. Landfills also release other greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, as well as particulate matter and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), all of which present health hazards.
The waste materials that cause land pollution can be classified as municipal solid waste (MSW) or construction and demolition (C&D) debris. MSW includes household garbage, while C&D debris includes wood and metal objects, wallboard, concrete rubble, asphalt, and other inert materials produced when structures are built, renovated, or demolished. Hazardous wastes are also a concern and include harmful substances generated primarily as liquids, solids, sludges, or gases by various chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries, paper mills, smelters, and other industries or commercial facilities.
Other sources of land pollution include agriculture, mining, illegal dumping, and littering. Agricultural pollution occurs when contamination, such as pesticides, herbicides, fertilizer, and animal waste, is released into the environment. Mining and other forms of extraction, such as drilling for oil, can also cause massive damage to local ecosystems when operations go wrong.
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