Helena Joyce
Air pollution has been a pressing issue for centuries, with the earliest concerns arising from coal-burning during the Song Dynasty (AD 961–1279). Since then, industrialization, the rise of mechanized factories, and the increased burning of fossil fuels have exacerbated the problem. Today, air pollution is the fourth-largest risk factor for early death worldwide, causing approximately 7-8 million deaths annually. This issue has prompted various legislative actions, such as the Clean Air Act, to mitigate the release of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. Despite these efforts, air pollution remains a significant challenge, with countries like China and India bearing the highest disease burdens.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First recognition of air pollution as a threat to human health | Around 400 BC, during the time of Hippocrates |
| First written accounts of air pollution | Between 961 and 1279 AD, during the Song Dynasty in China |
| First concerns of air pollution from coal-burning | Between 961 and 1279 AD, during the Song Dynasty in China |
| First measurements of air pollution | Eighteenth century |
| Start of the Industrial Revolution | Between 1820 and 1840 |
| First measurement of ozone as an air pollutant | 1876 |
| First investigation of soot particles in air | 1882 |
| First federal attempt to control air pollution in the US | 1955, with the Air Pollution Control Act |
| Peak of global emissions of sulfur dioxide | 1990 |
| Peak of global emissions of nitrogen oxides | 2018 |
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What You'll Learn
The Industrial Revolution
The widespread use of fossil fuels, especially coal, to power factories and machinery, led to a sharp increase in carbon emissions and air pollution. The shift to fossil fuels enabled urban expansion as factories, powered by burning coal, attracted new workers. This resulted in the rapid growth of cities, which became heavily industrialised and increasingly polluted. The air pollution caused by the Industrial Revolution was so severe that residents of these emerging industrial centres experienced "night at noon", with acrid smoke stinging their eyes and hindering their breathing.
The Second Industrial Revolution, from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, further intensified these issues with the introduction of electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine. This phase drove mass production and the growth of heavy industries, particularly in Europe and North America. Countries like the UK, Germany, and France rapidly industrialised, leading to exponential increases in energy consumption and resource extraction. The environmental impact of this phase included significant increases in air pollution, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions.
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Coal burning
Air pollution has been recognised as a threat to human health since the time of Hippocrates, around 400 BC. Written accounts of air pollution from different countries over the following two millennia detail the growing scale of poor air quality in urban centres and industrial areas.
The Industrial Revolution, which began around 1820, accelerated the magnitude of emissions and the geographical spread of air pollution. This period saw the rise of the mechanised factory system, chemical manufacturing, iron production, and an increase in the use of steam and water power, all of which led to a greater need for energy. As a reliable source of energy, coal burning became a significant contributor to air pollution.
Coal combustion produces a range of profoundly harmful environmental impacts and pollutants that harm public health. The chemical breakdown of carbon molecules releases energy, but it also carries toxic airborne pollutants and heavy metals into the atmosphere. These include:
- Sulfur dioxide, which contributes to acid rain and respiratory illnesses.
- Nitrogen oxides, which cause smog and respiratory issues.
- Particulates, which are linked to smog, haze, respiratory problems, and lung disease.
- Carbon dioxide, the primary greenhouse gas produced from burning fossil fuels, which drives global warming and climate change.
- Mercury and other heavy metals, which are linked to neurological and developmental issues.
The burning of coal for energy continues to have significant environmental and health impacts. In 2014, US coal power plants emitted large amounts of small airborne particles, known as particulate matter or soot, which is linked to chronic bronchitis, aggravated asthma, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. Other pollutants emitted by coal-fired power plants include lead, cadmium, arsenic, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds, contributing to a range of severe health and environmental issues.
Efforts to control coal burning and its associated pollution have a long history. As early as 1306, King Edward I issued a ban on the burning of sea coal, recognising its adverse health effects. While this ban was largely ignored, it marked the first attempt to regulate a substance known to cause air pollution. Over the centuries, citizen groups and local governments pushed for pollution controls, and by the turn of the 20th century, there were more informed campaigns against pollutants. The Clean Air Act, passed in Britain in 1956 and in the US in 1963, led to significant reductions in emissions and the closure of polluting industrial infrastructure.
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Indoor air pollution
Air pollution has been a recognised threat to human health for thousands of years. While outdoor air pollution is often the focus of attention, indoor air pollution is also a serious issue.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed guidelines for indoor air quality and household fuel combustion to address the negative health impacts of indoor air pollution. These guidelines provide recommendations on the types of fuels and technologies that protect health, such as solar, electricity, biogas, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
The use of polluting fuels and technologies in homes has a particularly detrimental impact on women and children, who typically spend the most time near the domestic hearth and are responsible for household chores such as cooking and collecting firewood. In 2020, household air pollution was estimated to have caused 3.2 million deaths per year, including the deaths of over 237,000 children under the age of five.
Overall, indoor air pollution poses a significant risk to human health, and it is important for individuals to take steps to reduce their exposure and improve indoor air quality.
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Environmental racism
Air pollution has been recognised as a threat to human health since around 400 BC, according to the writings of Hippocrates. However, the oldest known air pollution on a massive scale began with the Industrial Revolution between 1820 and 1840. This period saw the expansion of factories, a rise in coal consumption and combustion, and an increase in the use of steam and water power, leading to unprecedented levels of air pollution.
The term "environmental racism" was coined by civil rights leader and activist Benjamin Chavis in 1982, when a Black farming community in North Carolina was designated as a waste dump site for soil containing cancer-causing chemicals. Chavis co-authored the subsequent landmark report, "Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States", which revealed that hazardous waste sites were disproportionately located in low-income communities of colour across the United States.
Another example is the mass shipment of used car batteries from developed nations to recyclers in northern Mexico, taking advantage of lax environmental laws. This has led to high levels of lead poisoning among workers and the contamination of soil, air, water, and livestock, impacting the health of the local population.
Addressing environmental racism requires recognising its root causes, advocating for equitable environmental policies, and dismantling systemic inequalities that create divisions among communities.
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Clean Air Acts
Air pollution has been a recognised issue for millennia, with written accounts dating back to the time of Hippocrates around 400 BC. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the early 19th century, accelerated the magnitude of emissions and the geographical spread of contributing countries. This led to the great smog of London in 1952, which was a defining moment in the history of air pollution. As a result, the Clean Air Act was passed in Britain in 1956 to tackle air pollution arising from industrial activities. This Act led to significant reductions in emissions in urban areas and the closure of many urban power stations and other polluting industrial infrastructure.
The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the United States' primary federal air quality law, initially enacted in 1963 and amended many times since. The US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) administers the Act in coordination with state, local, and tribal governments. The Act establishes the EPA's responsibilities for protecting and improving the nation's air quality and the stratospheric ozone layer. The 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act were particularly significant, as they aimed to curb four major threats: acid rain, urban air pollution, toxic air emissions, and stratospheric ozone depletion.
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) program, established under the CAA, sets standards for concentrations of certain pollutants in outdoor air. These include ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, lead, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. The 1977 CAA Amendments also led to the creation of the Acid Rain Program (ARP), an emissions trading program aimed at reducing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from power plants and other industrial sources.
The Clean Air Act has been instrumental in reducing air pollution and improving air quality in the United States, with EPA estimates suggesting savings of trillions of dollars and thousands of lives each year. The Act has also promoted innovation in air pollution reduction, recognising outstanding efforts through the Clean Air Excellence Awards Program.
Overall, the Clean Air Act, in conjunction with other national and international efforts, has played a crucial role in addressing the global issue of air pollution and its associated health and environmental impacts.
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Frequently asked questions
Air pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the air, which can be detrimental to human health and the planet.
Air pollution has been a concern since the time of Hippocrates, around 400 BC. Written accounts of air pollution from the Arab world during the 'Dark Ages' and observations from Chinese writer Shen Kuo during the Song Dynasty (AD 961–1279) also exist.
Industrial activities, such as coal burning and smelting, have been major contributors to air pollution since the 13th century. The use of coal in households and for industrial processes in Britain from the 14th century onwards also significantly added to air pollution.
Air pollution was known to spread beyond cities and towns, moving across larger areas through air currents. This was evident in the transportation of pollutants from Britain's industrial activities to the "New World" during Spanish conquests in 1572.
Air pollution has been linked to various adverse health effects, including increased mortality rates and the development of diseases. For example, episodes of smog in 19th-century cities like New York and London resulted in numerous deaths.
