Kiera Jefferson
China's rapid industrialization has resulted in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases, causing intense levels of air pollution. The country's economic growth has been largely driven by coal, a cheap but highly polluting energy source. While China has made progress in reducing pollution in recent years, it still faces significant challenges in balancing economic growth with environmental and social welfare. Air pollution in China has been linked to millions of premature deaths and poses a major public health issue, with particulate matter (PM2.5) presenting the greatest danger to human health. Water pollution is also a concern, with many waterways unsuitable for agricultural irrigation.
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What You'll Learn
The impact of pollution on public health
China's rapid economic development has resulted in severe air pollution, which has had adverse impacts on society and public health. Air pollution levels dropped in early 2020 due to quarantines addressing the coronavirus pandemic, but by early 2021, they had risen again. A 2025 study found unexpectedly high lithium concentrations in newborns in two Chinese cities, and thallium pollution in Hunan has also been an issue.
Air pollution contributes to millions of premature deaths worldwide each year, and in China, it is a major public health issue. A study by the Health Effects Institute found that unhealthy levels of PM2.5 (fine particulate matter smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter) led to roughly 1.42 million premature deaths in China in 2019. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, such fine particles can cause asthma, bronchitis, and acute and chronic respiratory symptoms, and may also lead to premature death. A draft World Bank and SEPA report estimated that up to 760,000 people die prematurely each year in China due to air and water pollution, with 350,000–400,000 premature deaths caused by outdoor air pollution and 300,000 caused by poor indoor air quality. Another study by Chen et al. found that the space-heating policy in China had a dramatic impact on pollution and human health, with particulate concentrations north of the Huai River being 55% higher, resulting in a loss of more than 2.5 billion life-years among 500 million residents of Northern China during the 1990s.
In addition to premature deaths, air pollution has been linked to various health issues in China. A study by Zhang found that local air quality in China negatively impacts public mental status and subjective well-being. Furthermore, air and water pollution are correlated with rising incidences of respiratory diseases, chronic conditions, and mental health burdens, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), air pollution can produce large amounts of toxic gases, impairing children's development abilities and leading to chronic respiratory tract infections. The WHO's Air Quality Guidelines stipulate that annual mean PM2.5 levels should not exceed 10 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3), but China's levels far exceed this recommendation.
Economic growth and environmental pollution have a complex relationship with public health in China. On the one hand, environmental pollution directly inhibits sustainable economic development through resource depletion and ecological degradation. However, high-pollution industries can also promote economic growth through scale expansion and job creation. Environmental pollution has been linked to increased healthcare expenditures, reduced labour productivity, and constrained long-term economic sustainability. Nevertheless, China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution in recent years, with overall pollution falling by 10% between 2017 and 2018, and a 47% reduction in PM2.5 levels between 2005 and 2015. If these improvements are sustained, China's average life expectancy could increase by up to 2 years.
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The economic and social challenges of reducing pollution
China's rapid economic growth has lifted millions of people out of poverty, but it has also resulted in immense environmental degradation. The country's economic development has relied heavily on industrial output, urbanization, and motorization, all of which have significantly contributed to the pollution levels.
One of the significant economic challenges in reducing pollution is the trade-off between environmental protection and economic growth. China's growth has been largely powered by coal, a cheap but highly polluting energy source. While the consumption of coal has decreased over the years, it still accounted for 57.7% of the country's energy consumption in 2019. Transitioning to cleaner energy sources can be economically challenging, as it requires significant investments in new infrastructure and technology.
Another economic challenge is the cost of pollution itself. Pollution has severe consequences for public health, leading to millions of premature deaths and causing various respiratory and health issues. The Health Effects Institute estimated that unhealthy levels of PM2.5 led to approximately 1.42 million premature deaths in China in 2019. The economic impact of these health issues can be substantial, including medical costs, loss of productivity, and social unrest.
Socially, air pollution has already caused serious problems in China. It has been identified as a significant public health issue, with the country's rapid development resulting in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases. The social challenges of reducing pollution lie in balancing economic growth with environmental and social welfare. China's leaders have implemented measures to improve air quality, but they must navigate the complex task of maintaining economic growth while also addressing the public's health and environmental concerns.
Moreover, the sources of pollution in China are widespread and intense, particularly in the northeast corridor extending from Shanghai to Beijing. This area includes major cities and industrial hubs, making it challenging to reduce pollution levels without impacting economic activities. Additionally, pollution knows no borders, and China's pollution has been shown to travel thousands of kilometers, affecting not only its own citizens but also those of neighbouring countries.
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China's progress in reducing pollution
China's rapid industrialization has resulted in intense levels of air pollution, presenting serious social, economic, and political problems. However, China has made significant progress in reducing pollution in recent years.
In 2013, China launched an anti-pollution campaign that focused on controlling PM2.5, the most harmful type of air pollutant. As a result, the average PM2.5 concentration dropped by 50% from 2013 to 2019, and China has continued to improve air quality since then. The amount of harmful particulates in the air fell by 40% from 2013 to 2020, and overall pollution fell by a further 10% between 2017 and 2018. By 2018, 338 cities enjoyed good air quality on 79% of days, compared to only 84 cities in 2016.
China has invested significant sums into reducing air pollution, with its Academy for Environmental Planning pledging $277 billion in 2013 to combat the issue. The country has also received support from the World Bank, which has financed investments in energy efficiency, renewable energy, and emissions control. For example, the World Bank-supported Innovative Financing for Air Pollution Control Program has reduced carbon dioxide emissions by 2.5 million tons per year.
In addition to these efforts, millions of homes and businesses in China are switching from coal to natural gas, and afforestation measures are being implemented. China is also the world's largest producer of electric cars. These actions have led to notable improvements in air quality, with Beijing on track to drop out of the top 200 most polluted cities by the end of 2019.
However, despite this progress, challenges remain. China's overall particulate pollution average still exceeds the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m³, and ozone (O3) levels have been increasing. While China's war against pollution is not yet over, the country has made significant strides, and sustained improvements could lead to a notable increase in average life expectancy for its citizens.
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The sources and causes of pollution in China
China's pollution levels have been a major source of concern for its citizens and policymakers. The country's rapid economic growth and industrialisation have led to an increase in energy use, industrial waste, and emission of greenhouse gases. Air pollution in China is primarily caused by industry, transportation, coal power plants, and household solid fuel usage. The burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, has resulted in high levels of air pollution, causing premature deaths and respiratory illnesses. China's cities have some of the worst air quality globally, with particulate matter (PM2.5) being a significant concern.
The agricultural sector is also a significant source of pollution in China. Farms generate more pollution than factories, and agricultural activities contribute to water pollution, with more than half of China's water resources classified as too polluted for human use. Industrial discharges further contaminate waterways, making them unfit for direct human use.
China has made some progress in reducing pollution in recent years. The overall pollution levels fell by 10% between 2017 and 2018, and the average PM2.5 concentration dropped by 33% from 2013 to 2017 in 74 cities. The country has invested significant sums to combat pollution, with millions of homes and businesses switching from coal to natural gas. Additionally, China is the world's largest producer of electric cars and has developed a high-speed rail network to promote clean and efficient transportation.
However, despite these efforts, air pollution remains a critical issue. In 2021, after eight years of fighting a "War against Pollution," China's pollution levels were still above the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. The high levels of air pollution in Chinese cities continue to cause premature deaths and contribute to various diseases, including stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory infections.
Water pollution is also a persistent problem, with many waterways contaminated by industrial discharges and agricultural activities, posing health risks to the population. China's rapid development and economic growth have resulted in excessive emissions, and the release of chemical toxins has had severe health impacts. The country is facing traditional, modern, and emerging environmental challenges and is working to address these issues through various measures, including renewable energy expansion and afforestation.
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The levels of pollution in Chinese cities
China's rapid industrialization has resulted in intense levels of air pollution, which presents serious social, economic, and political problems. Air pollution is a major public health issue in China, causing millions of premature deaths each year. According to a draft 2007 World Bank and SEPA report, up to 760,000 people die prematurely each year in China due to air and water pollution. Of these, 350,000–400,000 premature deaths are attributed to high levels of air pollution in Chinese cities.
Particulates are formed from both primary and secondary pathways. Primary sources such as coal combustion, biomass combustion, and traffic directly emit particulate matter (PM). The emissions from power plants are considerably higher than in other countries, as most Chinese facilities do not employ any flue gas treatment. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, fine particles can cause asthma, bronchitis, and acute and chronic respiratory symptoms, and may also lead to premature death. In 2004, the Chinese cities with the highest levels of particulate matter were Tianjin, Chongqing, and Shenyang.
Air pollution levels in China dropped in early 2020 due to quarantines addressing the coronavirus pandemic. However, by early 2021, the levels had risen again. China has invested significant sums into efforts to reduce air pollution, with the country's Academy for Environmental Planning pledging $277 billion in 2013 to combat urban air pollution. In 2014, China announced a "'war against pollution'", and has since made remarkable progress in reducing pollution levels. From 2013 to 2018, the average concentration of PM2.5 and sulfur dioxide dropped by 42% and 68%, respectively, in the first batch of 74 cities that implemented the 2012 Environmental Air Quality Standards. From 2013 to 2020, the amount of harmful particulates in the air in China fell by 40%, and overall pollution fell by a further 10% between 2017 and 2018. As a result of these improvements, the average Chinese citizen can expect to live 2 years longer compared to 2013, provided the reductions are sustained.
Despite these improvements, work remains to be done. While China's overall particulate pollution average is in compliance with its national standard of 35 µg/m³, pollution levels still significantly exceed the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m³. Practically all (99.9%) of China's 1.4 billion people still live in areas where the annual average particulate pollution level exceeds the WHO guideline. If the current pollution levels persist, China stands to lose 3.6 billion total life years. If pollution levels were reduced to meet the national standard, the average Chinese resident's life expectancy would increase by 2.3 years, and the country could gain a total of 216.7 million life years.
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Frequently asked questions
China's pollution levels vary across the country, with the highest levels of pollution in the east, and significant levels in the north and centre. In 2021, China made remarkable progress in reducing pollution, but it still has a long way to go.
China's rapid economic growth and industrial output have resulted in immense environmental degradation. Much of China's growth has been powered by coal, a cheap but highly polluting source of energy.
Air pollution contributes to millions of premature deaths in China each year. It is estimated that air pollution takes 2.5 years off the life of the average Chinese resident.
China has invested significant sums into efforts to reduce air pollution, with millions of homes and businesses switching from coal to natural gas. China is also the world's largest producer of electric cars.
Air quality is typically reported using an Air Quality Index (AQI), a metric for assessing how healthy the air is in a specific location. China has also made hourly air pollution data from over 1500 sites available to the public.
