Air Pollution's Historical Journey: A Historical Perspective

Air pollution is a significant environmental issue, causing approximately 7 to 8 million deaths annually and costing the global economy over $8 trillion per year. It is caused by various human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, transportation, and agricultural practices. While air pollution has been exacerbated by modern technologies, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, it has been a concern for centuries. Early written works dating back to 400 BCE, such as Hippocrates' On Airs, Waters and Places, discussed the presence of harmful substances in the air. Today, air pollution remains a critical challenge, with countries like India and China facing severe air quality issues and the global community struggling to implement effective solutions.

The Industrial Revolution

During this period, cities across Europe, such as Manchester, Glasgow, and Birmingham, expanded rapidly to accommodate the growing workforce needed for factories. These urban centers became heavily industrialized and increasingly polluted, with residents experiencing poor air quality and public health issues. The air pollution was so severe that contemporaries often experienced 'night at noon', and societies emerged to campaign against the smoke scourge as early as 1842.

The environmental consequences of the Industrial Revolution were profound and far-reaching. In addition to air pollution, this period also witnessed deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and a continuous rise in greenhouse gas emissions. The widespread use of coal and, later, oil-powered machinery, contributed to climate change and global warming. The cumulative environmental strain caused by each phase of industrialization resulted in significant increases in pollution levels, and the consequences of these impacts are still felt today.

The Great Smog of London

Air pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the atmosphere, which can affect both humans and the environment. It is caused by a range of human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, industrial processes, transportation, and agriculture. While air pollution has been an issue for centuries, it has become increasingly severe with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, which saw a rise in factory furnaces and domestic fires.

One of the most notable events in the history of air pollution is the Great Smog of London in 1952. From December 5 to December 9, a combination of industrial pollution and high-pressure weather conditions blanketed the city in a thick layer of smog. This was not the first time London had experienced smog, as the city was infamous for its fog since at least the 13th century. However, the Great Smog was unprecedented in its severity.

The smog was caused by a period of unusually cold weather, during which Londoners burned large quantities of coal to keep warm. The combination of an anticyclone and windless conditions collected airborne pollutants, mostly arising from the use of coal, to form a dense layer of smog. The situation was worsened by the presence of numerous coal-fired electric power stations in the Greater London area. The large size of the water droplets in the fog allowed for the production of sulphates, further contributing to the pollution.

The Great Smog had devastating consequences, with visibility reduced to just a few metres. Public transport ceased, aside from the London Underground, and the ambulance service was disrupted, forcing individuals to make their own way to hospitals. The smog also penetrated indoor areas, affecting theatres and concerts. The most severe impact, however, was the spike in deaths and hospitalizations due to respiratory issues, pneumonia, and bronchitis. Initial estimates placed the death toll at around 4,000, but more recent research suggests the number of fatalities was closer to 12,000.

Air quality laws

The history of air pollution and the laws that aim to mitigate it are extensive and date back to ancient times. One of the first known examples of litigation related to air quality occurred around 2,000 years ago in ancient Rome, where laws allowed land transactions to be terminated due to "pestilentia" or unhealthy, malodorous air. In the centuries that followed, air pollution became an increasingly pressing issue, particularly in rapidly expanding cities like London, where the use of coal contributed to poor air quality.

In the United States, the push for federal control and regulation of air pollution began in the mid-20th century. The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 was the first federal legislation addressing air pollution, providing funds for federal research. This was followed by the Clean Air Act of 1963, which established a federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service and authorized research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution. The Clean Air Act has been amended multiple times since, including in 1970, 1977, and 1990, to strengthen air quality regulations and expand the federal government's role in pollution control.

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), established by the Clean Air Act, govern the acceptable levels of pollutants such as ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, lead, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide in outdoor air. The 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act focused on preventing significant deterioration of air quality in areas meeting the NAAQS and addressing non-attainment areas. The 1990 amendments further increased federal authority and targeted toxic air pollutants and acid deposition (acid rain).

While the Clean Air Act and its amendments have significantly improved air quality in the United States, ongoing legal actions by organizations like the American Lung Association highlight the need for continued vigilance and adaptation to evolving challenges, such as climate change and industrial pollution. Additionally, the complex nature of air and air pollution has made litigation and enforcement challenging, requiring the cooperation of federal, state, local, and tribal governments.

Open waste burning

The history of open waste burning is closely tied to the development of industrialization and modern hygiene practices. With the onset of industrialization in the 1800s, societies underwent a transition to new manufacturing processes, which led to an increase in waste generation. As packaging became more common, the amount of waste produced significantly increased. This waste had to be disposed of, and open burning was one of the methods employed.

The practice of open waste burning has been a prevalent issue in developing countries, where a lack of proper waste management systems exists. This has led to concerns about the environmental and health risks associated with open burning. Studies have shown that open waste burning releases a cocktail of air pollutants, including soot, methane, and toxic gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and heavy metals. These emissions contribute to air pollution and have detrimental effects on human health, with the World Health Organization (WHO) declaring it a "silent public health emergency."

In recent years, efforts have been made to address the issue of open waste burning. At the 18th session of the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) in 2022, an agreement was reached to reduce open waste burning in Africa. The United Nations also raised concerns about the practice, highlighting the potential for job creation in the waste management sector as a solution. Additionally, the Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life estimated that up to one billion tonnes of waste are burned globally each year, impacting the health of tens of millions of people.

Polluting industries

The Industrial Revolution, which began around 1820, marked the start of large-scale air pollution. This period saw the widespread adoption of mechanised factory systems, chemical manufacturing, iron production, and increased use of steam and water power. The burning of fossil fuels for energy and transportation is a significant contributor to air pollution, with coal, oil, and gas being the most polluting.

Energy and Fossil Fuels

The energy industry is the biggest polluter, with fossil fuels used for electricity and heat production accounting for 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Despite efforts to transition to renewable energy sources, emissions from fossil fuels continue to rise, with a 1% increase in 2022, reaching 40.5 gigatons of CO2.

Construction

The construction industry is responsible for approximately 40% of global emissions, including the release of dust (PM10, PM2.5), NOx, and CO. The extraction and transportation of building materials, construction processes, and everyday operations of buildings contribute to air pollution.

Transportation

Road vehicles produce a significant amount of air pollution, with petrol and diesel engines emitting exhaust gases, tyre and brake wear, and road surface erosion. Road transport alone is responsible for 74.5% of transport-related CO2 emissions, worsening air quality in cities.

Agriculture

Agricultural practices contribute 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions, with livestock methane and ammonia emissions impacting air and soil quality. Fertilized farmland is a significant source of nitrogen oxides, and slash-and-burn practices in forests contribute to air pollution and deforestation.

Fashion

The fashion industry is the third most polluting, producing about 10% of the annual carbon footprint, more than international flights and maritime shipping combined. It also generates millions of tons of plastic and textile waste and consumes large amounts of water.

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