Air Pollution In China: A Critical Analysis

Air pollution is a major public health issue in China, causing about 2 million deaths per year. It is responsible for a range of diseases, including stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory infections. The primary sources of air pollution in China are the combustion of coal, the burning of fossil fuels in vehicle engines, biomass combustion, and industrial emissions. China's rapid industrialization, economic boom, population growth, and increase in manufacturing outputs have contributed to the country's poor air quality. While China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution in recent years, it still has a long way to go to meet the World Health Organization's guidelines.

China's air pollution sources

China's air pollution is caused by a combination of industrial emissions, vehicle emissions, population growth, and the combustion of fossil fuels, among other factors.

Industrial emissions are a major contributor to China's air pollution. The country's rapid industrialization has led to excessive emissions of greenhouse gases, with coal being the largest source. In 2014, China's annual tonnage of coal used was 4 billion, more than the rest of the world combined. Emissions from power stations and factories are significantly higher than those in other industrialized countries due to the lack of filtration systems. The Chinese government has been encouraging a shift from coal to natural gas as a source of power, and more factories are now required to retrofit flue-gas desulphurization technology to reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.

Vehicle emissions also play a significant role in China's air pollution, especially in large cities like Beijing. The number of vehicles registered in Beijing is 3.3 million, with an additional 1200 new vehicles added daily. These vehicles contribute to almost 70% of Beijing's polluted air, with emissions of harmful pollutants such as PM2.5, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide. However, modern vehicles tend to be fitted with technology that reduces the emission of dangerous particles.

Population growth, especially in large metropolises like Beijing, Shanghai, and other major cities, has also contributed to air pollution. The population of Beijing has risen from 11 million to 16 million in just 7 years, leading to increased emissions from transportation, power plants, and household solid fuel usage.

The combustion of fossil fuels, particularly coal, is another significant factor in China's air pollution. In northern China, the burning of fossil fuels has been linked to a reduction in life expectancy of 5.5 years.

China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution in recent years. Since announcing a ""war against pollution"" in 2014, pollution levels have decreased by 41% compared to 2013. The government has invested heavily in combating pollution, with the Academy for Environmental Planning pledging $277 billion in 2013. Cities have also adopted the Environmental Air Quality Standards, leading to a drop in PM2.5 and sulphur dioxide concentrations. These efforts have resulted in improved air quality, with China's cities experiencing good air quality on 79% of days in 2018, compared to only 84 out of 338 cities attaining the national standard in 2016.

Air pollution's health impact

Air pollution is a major public health issue in China. The country's rapid development over the past three decades has resulted in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases. China's air quality index (AQI) in 2019 was 110, with pollution levels three times above the World Health Organisation's (WHO) recommended levels. Beijing, the capital of China, experienced moderate levels of pollution for just two months in 2019, August and September. For the remaining ten months, the air quality was classified as "Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups".

The health impacts of air pollution exposure depend on the types, sources, and concentrations of the pollutants, as well as the duration of exposure and the health status of the affected populations. The main pathway of exposure is through the respiratory tract, leading to inflammation, oxidative stress, immunosuppression, and mutagenicity in cells throughout the body. This impacts the lungs, heart, and brain, among other organs, and can ultimately lead to disease. For example, exposure to air pollution during pregnancy can increase the risk of hypertensive disorders and lead to intrauterine inflammation and damage to the placenta, affecting fetal growth and development.

Particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are among the pollutants with the strongest evidence for public health concern. In China, emissions from vehicles contribute to almost 70% of Beijing's polluted air, with PM2.5, SO2, NO2, and CO being the most dangerous pollutants. The burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, is another major source of air pollution in China, causing people in northern China to die on average 5.5 years sooner than they otherwise might. Coal is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants in the country, with approximately 66% of China's power produced by coal.

China has invested significant sums in efforts to reduce air pollution. The country's Academy for Environmental Planning pledged $277 billion to combat urban air pollution in 2013. As a result of these measures, China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution in recent years. The average concentration of PM2.5 and sulfur dioxide dropped by 42% and 68%, respectively, between 2013 and 2018 in the first batch of 74 cities that implemented the 2012 Environmental Air Quality Standards. China's fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) has been decreasing since the country announced a "war against pollution" in 2014, with pollution levels down by 41% compared to 2013.

China's air quality index

China's rapid development over the past three decades has resulted in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases, causing air pollution to become a major public health issue. In 2019, China ranked as the 11th dirtiest country in the world, with a US Air Quality Index (AQI) figure of 110. The concentration level of the PM2.5 pollutant was three times the World Health Organization's (WHO) recommended levels. Beijing residents experienced "Moderate" levels of pollution for just two months in 2019, with the remaining ten months classified as "Unhealthy for sensitive groups" according to WHO guidelines.

China's air pollution can be attributed to various factors, including the country's enormous economic boom, a large increase in the number of motorised vehicles, population growth, increased manufacturing outputs, and natural reasons such as topography and seasonal weather. Beijing, for example, has 3.3 million registered vehicles, with this figure increasing by 1,200 every day. Vehicle emissions contribute to almost 70% of the city's polluted air. The most dangerous pollutants include PM2.5, sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and carbon monoxide (CO).

The Chinese government has been taking significant steps to combat air pollution. In 2013, China's Academy for Environmental Planning pledged $277 billion to fight urban air pollution. The government also introduced the Environmental Air Quality Standards in 2012, which led to a 42% drop in PM2.5 concentrations and a 68% reduction in sulphur dioxide levels between 2013 and 2018.

China's efforts to improve air quality have shown progress. In 2016, only 84 out of 338 prefecture-level cities attained the national standard for air quality. By 2018, those same 338 cities enjoyed good air quality on 79% of days. The amount of harmful particulates in the air fell by 40% from 2013 to 2020, and China reduced PM2.5 by 47% between 2005 and 2015. In August 2019, Beijing experienced its lowest PM2.5 levels on record, with a low of 23 micrograms per cubic meter.

Despite these improvements, challenges remain. China's overall particulate pollution average meets its national standard of 35 µg/m³, but it still exceeds the WHO guideline of 5 µg/m³. As of May 11, 2025, China's real-time AQI level was 79 (Moderate), with levels fluctuating throughout the previous 24 hours. While current AQI levels are acceptable, certain pollutants may be a concern for sensitive individuals.

Pollution-reducing efforts

China has been making efforts to reduce its air pollution, which poses a significant threat to public health. In 2013, China experienced some of its highest pollution levels, and public awareness and criticism grew. As a result, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang declared a "war against pollution" in 2014, allocating significant public resources to combat pollution. This swift policy action has led to notable reductions in pollution levels.

One key strategy has been investing in renewable energy sources and improving energy efficiency. China has made efforts to reduce coal consumption, which is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants in the country. Initiatives such as the Innovative Financing for Air Pollution Control Program have been established to support enterprises in reducing air pollutants and carbon emissions. For example, the program has financed projects in energy efficiency, renewable energy, and emission control, with a total investment of $1.3 billion. Additionally, China has explored alternatives like geothermal heating, which has zero carbon emissions and does not generate local air, water, or waste pollutants.

To address the issue of vehicle emissions, which contribute to almost 70% of Beijing's polluted air, China has tightened rules governing vehicle exhausts. Modern vehicles are now fitted with technology that reduces the emission of dangerous particles. The country has also implemented the Operation National Sword (ONS) policy initiative, which aims to monitor and more stringently review recyclable waste imports. By 2018, China had banned 24 categories of solid waste and stopped importing plastic waste with contamination levels above 0.05%.

China's Academy for Environmental Planning has also played a role in pollution reduction efforts, pledging $277 billion to combat urban air pollution in 2013. As a result of these collective efforts, China has made significant progress in improving air quality. Between 2013 and 2018, the average concentration of PM2.5 and sulfur dioxide dropped by 42% and 68%, respectively, in the first batch of 74 cities that implemented stricter standards. From 2013 to 2020, particulate pollution in China declined by 39.6%, adding approximately two years to the average life expectancy if these reductions are sustained.

China's most polluted cities

China is the world's most populous country, with a population of approximately 1.4 billion people. It is the fourth-largest country by area, with a total land area of 9.6 million square kilometres. In 2019, China ranked as the 11th dirtiest country in the world, with a US Air Quality Index (AQI) figure of 110. The concentration level of the PM2.5 pollutant was three times the World Health Organisation's (WHO) recommended levels. Beijing, China's capital, has experienced "Moderate" levels of pollution for only two months in 2019 (August and September). For the remaining ten months, the air quality was classified as "Unhealthy for Sensitive groups" by the WHO.

China's rapid development over the past few decades has resulted in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. The country's immense population growth has also led to increased soil pollution, with an estimated 100,000 square kilometres of cultivated land contaminated. In addition, air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, is a significant issue in China. Coal is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants in the country, contributing to about 66% of China's power.

According to the World Bank, the Chinese cities with the highest levels of particulate matter in 2004 were Tianjin, Chongqing, and Shenyang. A survey of 878 rivers in the early 1980s revealed that 80% were polluted, and fish became extinct in more than 5% of the total river length. China has taken measures to improve its water infrastructure and increase regulation, but pollution remains a significant problem.

In 2013, the Chinese government pledged $277 billion to combat urban air pollution and adopted the Environmental Air Quality Standards to improve air quality in its cities. As a result, the average concentration of PM2.5 and sulphur dioxide dropped by 42% and 68%, respectively, between 2013 and 2018 in the first batch of 74 cities that implemented the standards. Despite these efforts, air pollution continues to pose a significant threat to public health in China. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, fine particulate matter can cause asthma, bronchitis, and acute and chronic respiratory symptoms.

In 2019, the cleanest city in China was Linzhi, Tibet, with a recorded US AQI figure of 27. In contrast, Hotan in Xinjiang Province was the dirtiest city, with an AQI figure of 179. Beijing, while not among the 20 most polluted cities in China in 2023, had an average air quality of 34.5 μg/m3, almost seven times the WHO-recommended limit.

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