Air Pollution In China: Measured In Pm2.5

Air pollution in China is a significant issue with severe consequences for public health and the economy. It is responsible for about 2 million deaths in China annually, causing a substantial reduction in life expectancy. The Chinese government has implemented various policies to combat this problem, including the 2013 Airborne Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, which recognised coal as a significant contributor to air pollution. Since then, China has made progress in reducing pollution levels, with a particular focus on lowering PM2.5 and sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions. While China's particulate pollution average complies with its national standard of 35 µg/m³, it still exceeds the World Health Organization's (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m³. As a result, China remains the 13th most polluted country globally, and continued efforts are necessary to improve air quality and mitigate the adverse impacts on public health and the economy.

China's air pollution measured in PM2.5

China's air pollution has been a significant issue, with the nation facing an unprecedented environmental health crisis. In 2013, the Chinese government began taking aggressive action against air pollution, and its efforts have shown results. China's fine particulate air pollution, measured as PM2.5, has been on a downward trend since the country announced its \"war against pollution\" in 2014. This decline continued through 2021, with pollution levels dropping by 42% compared to 2013.

The focus on reducing PM2.5 levels is crucial as it is deemed the most harmful type of particulate matter. Between 2013 and 2017, PM2.5 levels were reduced by 33% in at least 74 cities, and they fell by a further 10% the following year. Beijing, in particular, made significant progress, recording its lowest PM2.5 reading during August 2019, with just 23 µg/m³ (micrograms per cubic meter). This reduction in air pollution has the potential to increase the average life expectancy of Chinese citizens by 2.2 years if the improvements are sustained.

The Chinese government has invested heavily in this battle, with the Academy for Environmental Planning pledging over $277 billion in 2013. The adoption of the Environmental Air Quality Standards by cities has proven effective, as PM2.5 levels dropped by 42% between 2013 and 2018. The government has also encouraged a shift from coal to natural gas as an energy source for homes and industries, which has contributed to the reduction in sulphur dioxide (SO2) pollution.

Despite this progress, China still has work to do. While its overall particulate pollution average complies with its national standard of 35 µg/m³, it significantly exceeds the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m³. As a result, air pollution continues to shorten the life expectancy of Chinese residents by 2.3 to 2.5 years relative to what it could be if the WHO guideline was met. China's success in reducing pollution has contributed to the decline in global pollution levels, and continued efforts are crucial for the health and well-being of its citizens.

SO2 and NO2 emissions

China's air pollution is measured in terms of several particulate and gaseous pollutants, including PM2.5, PM10, O3, NO2, SO2, and CO. This response will focus specifically on SO2 and NO2 emissions as a key aspect of air pollution in China.

SO2 Emissions:

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a gaseous pollutant that has significant impacts on air quality, the atmospheric environment, and climate change. SO2 is primarily produced by power plants, refineries, metal smelting, and the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal. China's rapid economic growth has led to increasing SO2 emissions, making it a focus of many studies on air pollution. The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region, a major industrial hub, has been identified as one of the most polluted regions in China, with high SO2 concentrations associated with coal-fired power plants and industrial activities.

To address SO2 emissions, China has implemented measures such as adopting flue-gas desulphurisation technology at power plants, which has contributed to a notable reduction in SO2 levels. Between 2013 and 2018, SO2 levels dropped by 68%, and by 2020, SO2 concentrations had declined by 55% from their peak in 2013. The COVID-19 lockdown also contributed to a further reduction in SO2 emissions.

NO2 Emissions:

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is another critical gaseous pollutant that affects air quality and public health. NO2 emissions arise from industrial activity, fossil fuel burning, biomass burning, heavy traffic movement, and electricity generation. China's NO2 levels increased from 2000 to 2012, and it continues to be a concern, particularly in eastern China, where high-frequency exposure risk remains.

The Chinese government has invested heavily in combating air pollution, pledging over $277 billion in 2013. The adoption of Environmental Air Quality Standards by cities has helped reduce PM2.5 and NO2 levels. Additionally, the shift from coal to natural gas as an energy source has contributed to cleaner air, with a 33% reduction in PM2.5 levels between 2013 and 2017 in 74 cities.

In summary, China has made significant progress in reducing SO2 and NO2 emissions through various measures and technological advancements. However, continued efforts are necessary to sustain these improvements and further enhance air quality, with a focus on renewable energy sources to achieve long-term pollution reduction.

Health impacts and costs

Air pollution in China has had significant adverse health effects on its population, with studies confirming increased health risks, including adverse cardiovascular, respiratory, and pulmonary outcomes. It is estimated that an average Chinese resident's life expectancy is shortened by 2.3 to 2.5 years due to particulate pollution, relative to what it would be if the World Health Organization's (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m³ was met. China's rapid economic and social development has resulted in severe air pollution, with the country still ranked as the 13th most polluted globally.

The health consequences of air pollution have generated considerable interest, and the Chinese government has responded by investing heavily to combat the issue. In 2013, the government began implementing the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, with financial support from the World Bank. Cities also adopted the Environmental Air Quality Standards in 2012, leading to significant reductions in PM2.5 and sulphur dioxide (SO2) levels between 2013 and 2018.

The economic costs of air pollution in China are substantial. Studies have estimated the marginal welfare impact of ozone and particulate matter concentrations, resulting in a US$90 billion increase in losses between 1975 and 2005, despite improvements in overall air quality. The growing urban population and rising wages contributed to the increased value of lost labor and leisure. Additionally, the welfare losses represented 5% of the historical welfare level in 2005, down from 14% in 1975, due to the faster growth of the economy compared to absolute air pollution damages.

The environmental and health externalities of China's development have not been fully considered in traditional accounting. Air pollution has increased the demand and utilisation of health services, placing a greater economic burden on the government. Studies have found a positive association between regional healthcare resources and the health of residents, indicating that improved access to healthcare can mitigate the health impacts of air pollution. However, assigning economic values to "non-market" impacts, such as lost lives, biodiversity loss, and landscape degradation, remains a challenge in quantifying the costs of air pollution.

Economic costs

Air pollution in China has significant economic costs, impacting the country's GDP and resulting in substantial financial losses.

A 2018 report by Greenpeace and the Center for Research on Energy and Clean Air estimated that air pollution led to economic costs amounting to 6.6% of China's GDP, which equates to approximately $900 billion annually. Another study from the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) estimated a cost of RMB 267 billion (around $38 billion) in lost revenue each year due to early deaths and reduced food production. The social costs of air pollution, including impacts on public health and crop yields, contribute significantly to these economic losses.

The Chinese government has recognized the severity of the issue and has taken steps to address it. In 2013, the government began implementing the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, with financial support from the World Bank and designated financial institutions. The focus has been on reducing particulate matter (PM2.5) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions, with notable progress made in recent years. Between 2013 and 2018, PM2.5 levels dropped by 42% in many cities, and SO2 emissions decreased by 68% due to the adoption of flue-gas desulphurization technology in power plants.

However, the trade-offs between economic growth and environmental protection present a challenge. China's rapid economic growth has contributed to environmental degradation, and easing up on industrial production or implementing costly pollution reduction measures could hinder economic recovery. Nevertheless, the continued efforts towards reducing air pollution are crucial for improving the health and well-being of Chinese citizens and mitigating the economic impacts.

The economic costs of air pollution in China highlight the importance of transitioning to renewable energy sources and implementing sustainable practices to reduce pollution levels and promote long-term economic and environmental sustainability.

Government initiatives to combat pollution

China has implemented various government initiatives to combat its air pollution crisis, which has caused a public health emergency, killing over 1.1 million people annually.

In 2013, the Chinese government launched an anti-pollution campaign, which focused on controlling PM2.5, deemed the most harmful particulate matter. This campaign helped reduce the average PM2.5 concentration by 50%, from 72 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m³) in 2013 to 36 μg/m³ in 2019.

The government also introduced aggressive afforestation and reforestation programs, such as the Great Green Wall, planting over 35 billion trees across 12 provinces. China's forestry expenditure per hectare exceeded that of the US and Europe, with investments of over $100 billion.

To address financing challenges for renewable energy projects, the government worked with financial institutions to provide green financing. The Innovative Financing for Air Pollution Control in Jing-Jin-Ji Program was the first initiative to use the Program for Result (PforR) instrument in China's energy sector. This program supported enterprises in reducing air pollutants and carbon emissions by increasing energy efficiency and investing in clean energy.

The Chinese government has also implemented emission control technologies and measures for diesel trucks, which are major contributors to NOx and particulate matter emissions. Remote online monitoring technology has been adopted, along with transportation structure adjustments and heavy pollution enterprise classification control.

By 2025, China aims to reduce the density of PM2.5 by 10% compared to 2020 levels and keep the number of days with severe pollution to less than 1%. To achieve this, China plans to develop new and clean energy sources, increase natural gas production, and curb high-emission projects. China also intends to expand the use of electric vehicles and increase freight cargo transport by rail and water to reduce road transport pollution.

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