Helena Joyce
Air pollution is associated with a wide range of diseases and health problems. In 2013, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization (WHO) classified air pollution as a human carcinogen. Research has linked air pollution to respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease, lung cancer, neurological disorders, and even an increased risk of mortality. The impact of air pollution on human health is a growing concern, with evidence suggesting that it contributes to the development and exacerbation of various diseases and affects people of all ages, particularly those with pre-existing health conditions.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Diseases | Cancer, cardiovascular disease, respiratory diseases, diabetes mellitus, obesity, reproductive, neurological, and immune system disorders, osteoporosis, depression, anxiety, and dementia |
| Air Pollutants | PM2.5, NO2, SO2, O3, PAHs, diesel, benzene, nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide, particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2), wood smoke, vehicle exhaust, tobacco smoke, and other sources of airborne particles |
| Groups Most at Risk | Older adults, children, infants, people with chronic heart or lung disease, people with asthma, people from low-income communities, and minority populations |
| Effects | Mortality, hospital admissions, respiratory symptoms, restricted activity days, emergency room visits, coughing, itchy eyes, worsening of existing diseases, and increased risk of developing new diseases |
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What You'll Learn
Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) and associated health risks
Particulate matter, or PM, is a mixture of various chemical species, including solids, liquid droplets, and aerosols. PM10 and PM2.5 are two common types of particulate matter, classified based on particle diameter. PM10 refers to particles with a diameter of 10 microns or less, while PM2.5 includes particles with diameters of 2.5 microns or less, making them a subset of PM10. These particles can be inhaled and have been linked to several adverse health effects.
PM10 exposure has been associated with the worsening of respiratory diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Short-term exposure to PM10 can lead to hospitalisations and emergency department visits for those with respiratory conditions. While the long-term effects of PM10 exposure are less clear, several studies suggest a potential link to respiratory mortality.
PM2.5, due to its smaller size, can penetrate deeper into the lungs and has been associated with more severe health risks. Short-term exposure to PM2.5 has been linked to premature mortality, increased hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory issues, acute and chronic bronchitis, asthma attacks, and respiratory symptoms. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 is particularly dangerous for individuals with chronic heart or lung diseases and has been associated with premature death and reduced lung function growth in children.
The California Air Resources Board (CARB) has assessed the impact of PM2.5 exposure in California, finding that it contributes to thousands of premature deaths, hospitalisations, and emergency room visits annually. Additionally, PM2.5 has been associated with an increased risk of cancer, including lung, colorectal, and prostate cancers. Other health risks associated with PM2.5 exposure include dementia, osteoporosis, and postpartum depression.
Overall, particulate matter, especially PM2.5, poses significant health risks, particularly to vulnerable populations such as children, infants, older adults, and individuals with pre-existing heart or lung conditions. Understanding the health impacts of PM exposure is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate these risks and protect public health.
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Air pollution and respiratory diseases
Air pollution is a major risk factor for respiratory diseases. Outdoor and indoor air pollution can induce and aggravate respiratory diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and lung cancer. COPD is the most common cause of respiratory deaths attributable to air pollution exposure, followed by asthma.
Air pollution exposure is associated with oxidative stress and inflammation in human cells, which may lay the foundation for chronic diseases and cancer. Fine particulate matter or particle pollution can induce adverse health effects, especially in the lungs and heart. These health effects include respiratory symptoms such as irritation of the airways, coughing, phlegm, wheezing, and difficulty breathing. Particle pollution can also cause acute, reversible decrement in pulmonary function, inflammation of the airways and lungs, bronchial hyperreactivity, acute phase reaction, respiratory infections, and chronic loss of pulmonary function in adults.
Short-term exposure to particle pollution is associated with elevated morbidity, higher frequency of emergency department visits and hospital admissions, and excess mortality. People with pre-existing diseases, particularly heart or lung diseases, children, older adults, minority populations, and low socioeconomic status populations are the most likely to experience adverse health effects from short-term particle pollution exposure.
Long-term exposure to fine particles has been linked to decrements in lung function growth in children and increased respiratory symptoms. Children exposed to high levels of particle pollution, such as PM2.5, have slower lung growth and smaller lungs at age 18 compared to children exposed to lower levels. Additionally, air pollution is associated with an increased risk of developing Alzheimer's disease and other dementias.
To reduce the health impacts of air pollution, it is crucial to implement measures to lower exposure levels. The World Health Organization (WHO) has set air quality guidelines to protect human health, and regulations to reduce air pollution have been shown to decrease mortality rates.
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Air pollution and cancer
Air pollution is a significant public health concern, threatening progress in reducing the global burden of cancer. It is linked to various cancers, with lung cancer being the most established connection. Studies have shown that changes in airway cells due to particle pollution are visible in about half of people with lung cancer who have never smoked. Additionally, nearly half of lung cancer cases in non-smokers are estimated to be related to air pollution.
Outdoor air pollution, particularly particulate matter (PM), has been associated with lung cancer incidence and mortality. PM2.5, a fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers, is of particular concern. It is a mixture of environmental pollutants from transportation, power generation, and other sources. Exposure to PM2.5 has been linked to an increased risk of mortality, including from lung cancer.
Beyond lung cancer, air pollution has been associated with an increased risk of other types of cancer. Studies suggest a link between air pollution and cancers of the digestive organs, liver, pancreas, and bladder. A study of over 57,000 women found that living near major roadways increased the risk of breast cancer. Additionally, occupational exposure to benzene, an industrial chemical, is associated with leukemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
Air pollution not only contributes to cancer development but may also negatively impact the quality of life for those living with cancer. It can exacerbate respiratory symptoms, increase fatigue, reduce physical activity, and worsen treatment side effects. Additionally, it may interfere with cancer treatments, reducing the effectiveness of chemotherapy and increasing surgical complications.
Reducing air pollution is crucial to mitigate the risk of cancer, particularly lung cancer. Actions such as increasing green spaces, adopting cleaner energy sources, and promoting active transportation have the dual benefit of reducing pollution and improving overall health, thereby lowering the chances of developing cancer.
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Air pollution and cardiovascular disease
Air pollution is a complex mixture of solids and aerosols composed of small droplets of liquid, dry solid fragments, and solid cores with liquid coatings. Particles vary widely in size, shape, and chemical composition and may contain inorganic ions, metallic compounds, elemental carbon, organic compounds, and compounds from the earth's crust.
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a major component of air pollution and has been linked to a range of adverse health effects, including respiratory and cardiovascular issues. Short-term exposure to PM2.5 has been associated with premature mortality, increased hospital admissions for heart or lung-related issues, acute and chronic bronchitis, asthma attacks, and restricted activity days. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 has been consistently associated with all-cause cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality and morbidity, stroke, blood pressure issues, and ischemic heart disease (IHD).
The cardiovascular effects of air pollution are significant, with ischemic heart disease and stroke accounting for approximately half of the early deaths attributed to air pollution. Particle pollution exposure has been linked to a variety of cardiovascular problems, including myocardial infarction, heart failure, hypertension, and arrhythmia. Vulnerable population groups, such as the elderly, cardiac patients, and adults with a higher body mass index, are at an increased risk for air pollution-related cardiovascular health effects.
While the respiratory effects of air pollution have been recognized for decades, research over the last two decades has established cardiovascular disease as a significant consequence of air pollution exposure. The small particles in air pollution can have detrimental effects on the heart, vasculature, and blood, and there is growing understanding of the biological pathways by which inhaled particles impact the cardiovascular system.
Pharmacological interventions may provide a way to prevent or reverse the cardiovascular effects of air pollutants, especially for those who are highly susceptible or have unavoidable exposure. However, reducing air pollution remains the primary route to minimizing its impact on human health.
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Air pollution and mental health
Air pollution is associated with a range of adverse health effects, including respiratory and cardiovascular issues, and an increased risk of mortality. One of the most concerning aspects of air pollution's impact on human health is its effect on mental health.
Research suggests that exposure to air pollution may have detrimental effects on cognition and mental health, with some studies indicating that even short-term or temporary exposure to polluted air can increase the risk of mental disorders. The impact of air pollution on mental health is particularly concerning for children and adolescents, as their brains are still developing, and they are more susceptible to the potential harms of inhaling pollutants due to their higher respiration rate and time spent outdoors.
A 2020 study in Toronto, Canada, found a correlation between increased levels of PM2.5, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide and a higher number of emergency room visits for mental health symptoms in individuals aged 8-24. This builds on earlier research that examined the link between PM2.5, nitrogen dioxide, and mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and conduct disorders.
Additionally, a large study of over 300,000 women found that long-term exposure to air pollution, especially PM2.5 and ozone, during and after pregnancy increased the risk of postpartum depression. Another study in Ireland found associations between long-term exposure to PM2.5 and depression and anxiety in a nationally representative survey of individuals aged 50 and older.
The exact mechanisms by which air pollution affects mental health are still being investigated. However, it is clear that poor air quality can have significant impacts on mental illness and well-being, with potential consequences for cognitive and behavioral outcomes, particularly in vulnerable populations such as children and those with pre-existing stressors.
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