Brian Barton
Superfund sites are polluted locations in the United States that require long-term responses to clean up hazardous material contaminations. These sites are designated under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980, which was enacted in response to the threat of hazardous waste sites, including the Love Canal disaster in New York and the Valley of the Drums in Kentucky. CERCLA authorized the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to identify, investigate, and clean up these contaminated sites, holding responsible parties accountable for remediation or reimbursement. Sites are evaluated through a process called Superfund Site Assessment and placed on the National Priorities List (NPL) for long-term remedial action if they score above 28.5 on the Hazard Ranking System (HRS). As of 2025, there were over 1,300 Superfund sites listed, with approximately 70% of cleanup activities paid for by the responsible parties, and the remaining 30% funded by taxpayers when responsible entities cannot be identified or are unable to pay.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| What are Superfund sites? | Polluted locations in the United States requiring a long-term response to clean up hazardous material contaminations |
| Who administers the program? | Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |
| Who pays for the cleanup? | The polluters or the Superfund (a trust fund) |
| Who created the Superfund program? | The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980 |
| Why was CERCLA enacted? | In response to the threat of hazardous waste sites, such as the Love Canal disaster in New York and the Valley of the Drums in Kentucky |
| How does a site become a Superfund site? | Through an evaluation process called "Superfund Site Assessment." Sites are discovered through requests by the EPA, state agencies, health departments, or private citizens |
| What is the goal of a Superfund cleanup? | To reduce the risks to human health through a combination of cleanup, engineered controls, and site restrictions |
| What are some common contaminants found at Superfund sites? | Lead, asbestos, radiation, and dioxin |
| How many Superfund sites are there? | As of July 3, 2025, there were 1,343 sites on the National Priorities List (NPL); 459 sites had been deleted, and 38 new sites have been proposed |
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What You'll Learn
The Superfund Site Assessment process
Site Discovery and Notification:
The process begins with the discovery of a potentially contaminated site or notification of a release or potential release of hazardous substances into the environment. Citizens, states, tribes, or other environmental programs can notify the EPA of hazardous waste activity. At federal facilities, the process starts with listing on the Federal Agency Hazardous Waste Compliance Docket (Docket).
Pre-CERCLA Screening:
Non-federal sites undergo Pre-CERCLA Screening to determine whether they should be added to the Superfund Active site inventory for further assessment. Federal facilities may bypass this step and proceed directly to a preliminary assessment.
Preliminary Assessment (PA):
The EPA, its state and tribal partners, or the appropriate federal department or agency conduct a preliminary assessment using Hazard Ranking System (HRS) criteria. This assessment evaluates site conditions and collects data to identify and evaluate the potential threat posed by hazardous waste sites.
Site Inspection and In-Depth Assessment:
If warranted based on the preliminary assessment, a more comprehensive site inspection or other in-depth assessments may be conducted. These assessments help determine the extent of contamination and potential risks to human health and the environment.
Hazard Ranking System (HRS) Scoring:
The HRS is a numerically based screening system that assigns a score to sites based on the actual or potential release of hazardous substances. Sites with HRS scores of 28.5 or higher are eligible for placement on the National Priorities List (NPL).
National Priorities List (NPL) Nomination:
Sites that meet the HRS score threshold are proposed for inclusion on the NPL. After a period of public comment and review, the NPL decision is finalized in the Federal Register. Sites on the NPL are considered highly contaminated and are eligible for long-term remedial investigation and cleanup actions.
Remedial Process and Cleanup:
Once a site is on the NPL, it enters the remedial process of the Superfund program. This may include comprehensive site characterization to determine the full extent of contamination and ecological and human health risk assessments. Multiple cleanup options are evaluated to determine the most appropriate approach, which may include engineered controls, site restrictions, and long-term remedial actions.
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The Hazard Ranking System (HRS)
The HRS uses a structured analysis approach to assign scores to sites. This approach involves assigning numerical values to factors related to risk, which are based on site conditions. These factors are grouped into three categories: the likelihood that a site has released or could release hazardous substances; the characteristics of the waste, such as toxicity and quantity; and the people or sensitive environments affected by the release.
Scores are calculated using information from initial investigations, including the preliminary assessment (PA), site inspection (SI), and, if necessary, the expanded site inspection (ESI). After calculating scores for one or more pathways, they are combined using a root-mean-square equation to determine the overall site score, which ranges from 0 to 100. A score of 28.5 or higher qualifies a site for inclusion on the NPL, making it eligible for long-term remedial action, or cleanup, under the Superfund program.
The HRS serves as a screening tool to evaluate the potential for uncontrolled releases of hazardous substances to cause harm to human health or the environment. It provides a measure of relative risk, allowing for consistent application across a diverse range of sites. The HRS was first published by the EPA in 1981, and the initial NPL was released in 1983.
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Polluters compelled to clean up sites
Polluted sites become Superfund sites through an evaluation process called the "Superfund Site Assessment." The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies the parties responsible for hazardous substances released into the environment (polluters) and either compels them to clean up the sites or performs the cleanup itself using the Superfund (a trust fund) and seeks to recover those costs from the responsible parties.
The EPA and state agencies use the Hazard Ranking System (HRS) to calculate a site score (ranging from 0 to 100) based on the actual or potential release of hazardous substances. A score of 28.5 places a site on the National Priorities List (NPL), making it eligible for long-term remedial action (cleanup) under the Superfund program. Sites on the NPL are considered the most highly contaminated and undergo long-term remedial investigation and remedial action (cleanups).
The first step in the traditional Site Assessment process is the Preliminary Assessment (PA). PAs are typically non-sampling information searches used to determine whether a site has the potential to qualify for the NPL. If the evaluation determines that the site does not qualify for the NPL, it will be given No Further Remedial Action Planned (NFRAP) status, indicating that the EPA no longer plans any action toward NPL listing on the site.
If the recommendation of the PA is to nominate the site to the NPL, an HRS scoring package and documentation record are prepared for the site. Once the HRS package/documentation record is prepared, the site is proposed to the NPL in the Federal Register. If, after public comment on the proposal and HRS package, the site still qualifies for the NPL, the NPL decision is finalized in a subsequent Federal Register. The site then moves into the remedial process of the Superfund program.
Approximately 70% of Superfund cleanup activities have been paid for by the potentially responsible parties (PRPs), reflecting the "polluter pays" principle. However, in about 30% of cases, the responsible party cannot be found or is unable to pay for the cleanup, and taxpayers have had to bear the cost of these operations. The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA) added minimum cleanup requirements and mandated that most cleanup agreements with polluters be entered into federal court as a consent decree subject to public comment. This addressed the issue of favourable deals between industries and the EPA that had been discovered.
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Taxpayer-funded cleanups
Polluted sites become Superfund sites through an evaluation process called the "Superfund Site Assessment." Sites can be discovered through requests by the EPA, state agencies, health departments, or private citizens. Once a site is discovered, it must be evaluated to determine whether it qualifies for listing on the National Priorities List (NPL). Sites that make it onto the NPL are considered the most highly contaminated and undergo long-term remedial investigation and action (cleanups).
The EPA and state agencies use the Hazard Ranking System (HRS) to calculate a site score, ranging from 0 to 100, based on the actual or potential release of hazardous substances. A score of 28.5 places a site on the NPL. If a site qualifies for the NPL, it moves into the remedial process of the Superfund program.
The EPA seeks to identify the parties responsible for hazardous substances being released into the environment (polluters) and either compel them to clean up the sites or undertake the cleanup itself using the Superfund (a trust fund) and seek to recover those costs from the responsible parties. Approximately 70% of Superfund cleanup activities have historically been paid for by the potentially responsible parties (PRPs).
However, in about 30% of cases, the responsible party cannot be found or is unable to pay for the cleanup. In these circumstances, taxpayers fund the cleanup operations. The Superfund was established to provide funding through a taxing mechanism on certain industries and to create a comprehensive liability framework to hold a broader range of parties responsible. The initial Superfund trust fund, intended for cleanups where a polluter could not be identified or would not pay, consisted of about $1.6 billion and later increased to $8.5 billion. Since 2001, most of the funding for hazardous waste site cleanups has come from taxpayers.
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CERCLA and the National Priorities List (NPL)
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980, also known as "Superfund", was enacted by Congress in response to the threat of hazardous waste sites, such as the Love Canal disaster in New York and the Valley of Drums in Kentucky. It aims to address the challenge of funding site cleanups when responsible parties are difficult to identify or unable to pay. CERCLA established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and authorized it to create the National Priorities List (NPL), a list of national priorities among the known or threatened releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, or contaminants.
The NPL is intended to guide the EPA in determining which sites warrant further investigation to assess the nature and extent of public health and environmental risks. It is based on the criteria provided by the Hazard Ranking System (HRS), with a score of 28.5 or higher indicating eligibility for long-term remedial action under the Superfund program. Sites on the NPL are considered highly contaminated and are prioritized for cleanup. As of 2024, there were over 1300 sites on the NPL, with more being proposed and others being cleaned up and removed.
The process of adding a site to the NPL begins when the EPA receives a report of a potentially hazardous site from an individual, state government, or federal agency. The EPA enters the site into the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Information System (CERCLIS) and conducts a preliminary assessment to determine the potential threat to human health and the environment. If contamination is suspected, the EPA or the state performs a detailed site inspection and uses the HRS to review data and determine the site's eligibility for the NPL.
The NPL is not the only pathway for sites to receive attention and cleanup under CERCLA. The Superfund program also allows for sites to be designated as high priority by states or territories, regardless of their HRS score. Additionally, sites that meet specific requirements, such as posing a significant threat to public health, may be included on the NPL to access remedial authorities and funding. The EPA may remove sites from the NPL once remediation is completed or if no further response is required to protect human health and the environment.
CERCLA and the NPL play a crucial role in addressing hazardous waste sites and ensuring the protection of public health and the environment. The NPL guides the EPA's efforts by identifying sites requiring further investigation and potential long-term remedial action, while CERCLA provides the legal framework and funding necessary to hold responsible parties accountable and facilitate effective cleanup processes.
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Frequently asked questions
Superfund sites are polluted locations in the United States that require long-term responses to clean up hazardous material contaminations. Sites include landfills, mines, manufacturing facilities, and processing plants where toxic waste has been improperly managed or dumped.
Sites become Superfund sites through an evaluation process called "Superfund Site Assessment." Sites can be discovered through requests by the EPA, state agencies, health departments, or private citizens. Once a site is discovered, it must be evaluated to determine whether it qualifies for listing on the National Priorities List (NPL). The EPA uses the Hazard Ranking System (HRS) to calculate a site score based on the actual or potential release of hazardous substances. A score of 28.5 places a site on the NPL.
Once a site is on the NPL, it undergoes long-term remedial investigation and action (cleanups). The EPA identifies the parties responsible for the hazardous substances and either compels them to clean up the site or undertakes the cleanup itself using the Superfund (a trust fund) before seeking to recover those costs from the responsible parties.
Approximately 70% of Superfund cleanup activities have been paid for by the potentially responsible parties (PRPs). However, in 30% of cases, the responsible party cannot be found or is unable to pay, and taxpayers have had to fund the cleanup operations.
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