Kiera Jefferson
Pollution is not a new phenomenon. In fact, it has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors, with increasing human populations leading to more bacteria and disease. While pollution has been an issue for thousands of years, the Industrial Revolution accelerated the magnitude of emissions and the geographical spread of contributing countries, with cities becoming hubs of pollution. In the 19th century, episodes of smog in cities like New York and London resulted in numerous deaths, and in the 20th century, London experienced the Great Smog of 1952. Today, pollution continues to be a critical issue, with water pollution causing 1.4 million premature deaths in 2019 and planet-heating pollution being dominated by a few countries, including China, India, the United States, and the European Union.
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What You'll Learn
The Industrial Revolution
Britain was the first country to industrialise, and it quickly became the world's leading commercial power. The Industrial Revolution then spread to other parts of Europe and North America. Belgium was the first country in continental Europe to industrialise, with the revolution centred around iron, coal, and textiles. France, on the other hand, was slower to industrialise due to its political revolution. Germany, despite its vast resources, did not begin industrial expansion until after national unity was achieved in 1870. Once started, Germany's industrial production grew rapidly, outproducing Britain in steel and becoming a world leader in chemicals.
In addition to air pollution, the Industrial Revolution caused water pollution as oil, debris, and toxic pollutants from improper industrial practices contaminated waterways. Overcrowding in cities also led to unhealthy living conditions, filth in the streets, and the spread of diseases like cholera and typhoid. The environmental impact of the Industrial Revolution set in motion a pattern of unchecked resource exploitation and high emissions that continue to affect the world today.
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The US and China
Pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, however, pollution levels rose significantly, particularly in the United States and Europe. During the 19th century, episodes of "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) in cities like New York and London resulted in numerous deaths. Industrial chemicals and wastes contaminated waters in the US Northeast, and the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, became so polluted that the water caught fire not once but twice—in 1969 and earlier in 1952. These incidents prompted the nation to take immediate action, leading to the creation of the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), commonly known as the Clean Water Act.
The United States and China are currently the world's two largest polluters, accounting for a significant proportion of global carbon dioxide emissions. China is the largest annual emitter, with emissions more than doubling those of the US, which is the second-largest emitter. China's emissions have been rising, while US emissions have been falling. From 1750 until the end of 2018, the US produced 404.77 billion tons of CO2, while China produced 210.20 billion tons. However, when examining per capita emissions, China's emissions are lower than those of the US. The average Chinese person uses far less energy, with an annual carbon pollution average of 10.1 tons compared to 17.6 tons in the US.
International trade has also impacted global air pollution. The US outsourcing of manufacturing to China has led to a reduction in air quality in the western United States, with an improvement in the east due to reduced emissions. A significant proportion of China's emissions are associated with the manufacture of goods for foreign consumption, with 21% of export-related emissions attributed to China-to-US exports in 2006. China is the world's largest emitter of anthropogenic air pollutants, and its pollution has been transported via the atmosphere to other countries, including the US.
Both the US and China have taken steps to address their environmental impact and combat climate change. The US has tightened laws on importing products made from illegally logged wood, and its exports of plastic waste have decreased since 2018 due to import restrictions by China and other countries. China has also tightened its laws, banning Chinese companies from trading in illegally sourced timber. Additionally, the US has been transitioning from coal to natural gas and renewable energy sources, resulting in a decline in carbon emissions. These efforts are crucial for the world to stay within safe limits of global warming.
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India's rising emissions
Pollution is not a new phenomenon. It has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, however, pollution levels soared. During the Middle Ages, Europe suffered from diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever, which were directly linked to unsanitary conditions caused by human and animal waste.
In the 19th century, episodes of "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) in cities like New York and London resulted in numerous deaths. Water and air pollution in U.S. urban areas continued to increase well into the 20th century. The Clean Water Act of 1972 and the Clean Air Act of 1990 were enacted to address these issues.
In the context of India's rising emissions, the country is facing a dual challenge of balancing economic growth with decarbonization. India's fossil CO₂ emissions have nearly tripled, reaching a record high of 2.7 GtCO₂ in 2022. The increasing use of coal-fired electricity generation, currently accounting for three-quarters of India's power supply, is a primary factor in the country's rising emissions. India's per capita carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions have soared in recent decades, climbing from roughly 0.4 metric tons in 1970 to a high of 2.07 metric tons in 2023. India's energy transition has made progress with a notable shift towards renewable energy sources, particularly solar power. However, India's climate goals are undermined by its continued dependence on coal, with plans to increase coal output to meet growing energy demands.
India's climate targets and policies have been rated as ''Highly Insufficient'', indicating a misalignment with the Paris Agreement's 1.5°C temperature limit. To achieve a sustainable energy transition, India must expedite the integration of renewable energy sources, avoid locking into fossil fuel imports, and launch programs targeting low-carbon cooling methods. India has committed to reducing the carbon intensity of its economy by at least 45% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels, meeting 50% of its energy demand through non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, and achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2070.
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Air pollution in Europe
Air pollution has been recognised as a threat to human health since as early as 400 BC. However, the Industrial Revolution accelerated the magnitude of emissions and the number of contributing countries, with Europe and North America dominating global emissions until the early 1980s. During the interwar period, a shift from coal to gas and oil led to a decrease in air pollution, but this trend reversed during World War II. The UK experienced its worst air pollution during the 1952 Great Smog of London, which resulted in approximately 12,000 deaths and the passing of the Clean Air Act in 1956.
In the 1970s, the discovery of the hole in the ozone layer led to the banning of certain chemicals worldwide. In 1979, the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution was established, requiring extensive monitoring of emissions and concrete action. This marked a significant step towards addressing air pollution on a global scale.
In Europe, air pollution has had a long history, with written accounts dating back to the 18th century and earlier descriptions from the 17th century, such as John Evelyn's "Fumifugium," which described the air pollution in London. Today, Europe continues to face serious problems caused by air pollution, with hundreds of thousands of premature deaths occurring annually due to exposure to pollutant concentrations above the recommended levels by the World Health Organization. The European Environment Agency reported that in 2021, 97% of the EU's urban population was exposed to fine particulate matter (PM2.5), the most harmful of air pollutants, above the guidelines set by the World Health Organization.
The primary sources of air pollution in Europe are energy consumption and agriculture. Pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), ammonia (NH3), and particulate matter (PM) have been under rigorous scrutiny since the 1980s, and efforts to curb emissions have led to significant decreases in these pollutants between 1990 and 2021. Despite this, air pollution remains a complex issue, and the EU has set a "zero pollution vision" for 2050, working towards a new set of rules to achieve this ambitious goal.
The impact of air pollution extends beyond human health, affecting ecosystems, vegetation, and the economy. For example, ground-level ozone (O3) damages agricultural crops and forests, resulting in economic losses. Additionally, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia (NH3) deposited on land and water bodies contribute to eutrophication, reducing species richness in grasslands.
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Water pollution
The Industrial Revolution of the mid-19th century introduced new sources of water pollution, and by the mid-20th century, its effects were being felt worldwide. Industrial activities, including factories and mills, release toxic chemicals and waste into water bodies, such as rivers and oceans. In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the severe industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales, with pollutants from various works, including copper, sulfuric acid, and slag. The United States also faced similar issues, with industrial chemicals and wastes contaminating waters in the Northeast.
In the latter half of the 20th century, an environmental movement emerged, seeking to address the tide of pollutants entering the planet's ecosystems. This movement led to legislative victories, such as the Clean Water Act of 1972 in the United States, which aimed to reduce water pollution. Despite these efforts, water pollution remains a problem, with industrial and municipal facilities continuing to discharge pollution into waterways.
To combat water pollution, individuals can take simple steps such as properly disposing of chemicals, oils, and non-biodegradable items, reducing plastic consumption, and maintaining vehicles to prevent leaks of oil and other chemicals. Additionally, local governments employ stormwater management techniques, such as Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) in the UK, to mitigate urban runoff and improve water quality.
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Frequently asked questions
China is the biggest polluter in the world, followed by the United States, the European Union, and India.
The United States. Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population but produce roughly 25% of the world's CO2 and generate about 30% of the world's waste.
Air pollution, specifically the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels and mass deforestation.
Air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution.
Yes, pollution is not a new phenomenon. It has been a problem since the appearance of our earliest ancestors.
