China's Air Pollution: Understanding The Crisis

China is the world's most populous country, with a population of approximately 1.4 billion people. It is also the world's leading annual emitter of greenhouse gases and mercury. The country's rapid industrialization and economic growth have resulted in intense levels of air pollution, threatening the health and welfare of its citizens and the global economy. The combustion of coal, fossil fuels, and vehicle emissions are major contributors to China's air pollution, with the country's power stations emitting considerably higher pollutants than those in other industrialized nations.

Coal power plants

China has the world's largest fleet of coal-fired power plants, which contribute to over 60% of its domestic electricity supply. Between 70.4% and 82.5% of China's power generation comes from coal-fired power plants. This unprecedented expansion of coal-fired power plants has been noted as the primary source of air pollution in China and around the world.

Coal is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants in China. Coal-fired power plants emit harmful sulphur dioxide (SO2), NOx, and particulate matter (PM). The combustion of coal, along with fossil fuels burnt in vehicle engines and general biomass combustion, is a primary source of particulates in the air.

China's efforts to mitigate air pollution from coal-fired power plants have included the use of air pollution control devices (APCDs). However, these devices rely on electricity generated by the power plants, resulting in indirect CO2 emissions. The extent of these emissions is uncertain, but they have significantly increased over the years.

The Chinese government has imposed strict policies on coal-fired power plants, and some studies have found improvements in air quality during the COVID-19 pandemic due to reduced industrial operations. However, the early 2020 lockdown also provided evidence that coal-fired power plants still contribute significantly to air pollution, as daily concentrations of PM2.5, SO2, and NOx remained relatively high during this period.

Overall, coal-fired power plants have been a major contributor to air pollution in China, and the country is facing the challenge of reducing emissions while meeting the growing demand for electricity.

Fossil fuel usage

The burning of fossil fuels releases fine particles into the air that can penetrate deep into the lungs and cardiovascular system, causing various health issues, including stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory infections. The impact of this pollution on public health is severe, with an estimated 1.24 million people dying from air pollution in China in 2017 alone.

Vehicle emissions from the growing number of motorised vehicles in China, which reached 360 million in 2020, are also a significant contributor to air pollution. In 2018, vehicle emissions were blamed for about 45% of Beijing's air pollution and nearly 30% of Shanghai's. The combustion of fossil fuels in vehicle engines, along with coal power plants and industrial manufacturing, has led to high levels of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and black carbon.

While China has made some progress in reducing air pollution, such as the adoption of Environmental Air Quality Standards in 2012, the country continues to increase the construction of coal-fired power plants, presenting significant challenges in balancing economic growth with environmental and social welfare. The Chinese government has pledged significant investments to combat pollution, but the environmental data repression and limits on press freedoms slow down the changes needed to reduce emissions and improve the environment.

International trade has also played a role in China's air pollution, as the production of goods for foreign consumption, particularly exports to the United States, has contributed to increased emissions and the redistribution of pollution globally. However, it is important to note that the outsourcing of manufacturing to China by other countries has also resulted in improved air quality in those regions, highlighting the complex nature of global emissions and atmospheric transport.

Industrialisation and manufacturing

China's rapid industrialization and manufacturing output have significantly contributed to its air pollution crisis. The country's economic boom and expansion in production for export have led to increased emissions from factories and power plants. Notably, China is the world's largest emitter of anthropogenic air pollutants, with its production of goods for foreign consumption contributing to significant levels of pollution in other countries, including the United States.

The burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal, is a major factor in China's air pollution. Coal is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants in the country, with approximately 66% of China's power generated from coal. The annual tonnage of coal used in China far exceeds that of the rest of the world combined. The combustion of coal and other fossil fuels releases fine particles and pollutants into the air, which have detrimental effects on human health and the environment.

In addition to coal, the increase in manufacturing outputs has resulted in higher emissions of harmful substances. Factories and power plants in China have been slow to adopt filtration systems, allowing the release of untreated fumes into the atmosphere. However, there is a growing trend of implementing flue-gas desulphurization technology, which effectively removes sulphur dioxide (SO2) from emissions.

The Chinese government has recognized the severity of the situation and is investing heavily in combating pollution. The adoption of Environmental Air Quality Standards by cities has shown positive results, with significant reductions in PM2.5 and sulphur dioxide (SO2) levels between 2013 and 2018. Despite these efforts, China's rapid economic growth and dependence on industrial output present ongoing challenges in balancing economic development with environmental and social welfare.

The impact of industrialization and manufacturing on China's air quality is evident, and addressing these sources of pollution is crucial for the country's sustainability and the well-being of its citizens.

Vehicle emissions

China's rapid industrialization and economic growth have resulted in a massive increase in the number of motorized vehicles, which has severely impacted air quality. The economic boom has led to a larger number of vehicles on the road, contributing to the already poor air quality caused by emissions from power stations and factories. China's power stations emit considerably higher levels of pollutants than those recorded in other industrialized countries due to the lack of filtration systems. However, this is changing as more factories are required to install flue-gas desulphurization technology, which removes harmful sulphur dioxide from exhaust gases.

While vehicles are a significant contributor to air pollution in China, other factors also play a role. Population growth, increased manufacturing outputs, and natural factors such as topography and seas influence the distribution and concentration of pollutants. Additionally, the burning of coal for power generation and industrial processes is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants, with approximately 66% of China's power produced by coal.

To combat vehicle emissions and improve air quality, the Chinese government has implemented various measures. The adoption of Environmental Air Quality Standards by cities has helped reduce PM2.5 and sulphur dioxide levels significantly between 2013 and 2018. Additionally, investments in clean energy and technology, such as the Academy for Environmental Planning's pledge of over $277 billion in 2013, demonstrate China's commitment to addressing air pollution and improving the health and well-being of its citizens.

International trade

China's international trade has had a significant impact on global air pollution, particularly in the United States. The country's manufacturing and production for exports have been linked to an increase in air pollution levels in certain regions of the US. This is due to the outsourcing of manufacturing to China, which has resulted in a shift in emissions and atmospheric transport. As a result, Chinese air pollution related to exports contributes up to 12-24% of sulfate pollution over the western United States, leading to noncompliance with ozone standards in some areas.

The international trade of goods and services redistributes emissions and can alter global emissions levels. This is particularly evident in the case of China, which is the world's largest emitter of anthropogenic air pollutants. The production and consumption patterns driven by international trade have direct consequences for air quality, not just within China but also in other countries impacted by the transport of these pollutants.

The environmental effects of international trade in China are a critical area of study. Research has focused on the impact of import trade technology spillovers on industrial air pollution emission intensities. This includes examining the mediating effects of economic scale, industrial structure, and technological innovation. The findings suggest that capital and intermediate goods technology spillovers can directly reduce industrial air pollution emission intensity, while import trade technology spillovers can have an indirect reducing effect.

Foreign trade technology spillovers and their relationship with pollutant emissions are influenced by environmental regulations and the importing country's absorptive capacity. The interaction between trade technology spillovers and intellectual property protection can have varying regional effects on carbon emissions, with increases in pollution in some regions and decreases in others.

To address transboundary air pollution effectively, international agreements and collaborations are necessary. These agreements should be informed by consumption-based accounting of emissions and atmospheric transport modeling. By considering the environmental impacts of production and consumption across borders, sustainable trading practices can be implemented to minimize the negative consequences of international trade on air quality.

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