Air Pollution In Africa: Understanding The Root Causes

Africa is facing a severe air pollution crisis, with 1.1 million people dying prematurely from air pollution-related diseases in 2019. The death rate linked to air pollution in Africa is almost double the global average, and the continent is home to five of the world's ten most polluted countries. The primary sources of air pollution in Africa include residential fuel use, fossil fuel combustion for energy production, transportation, industry, waste burning, and forest fires. These sources contribute to both indoor and outdoor air pollution, causing respiratory diseases and other fatal health issues. The economic costs of air pollution in African cities are also significant, with projected increases if urgent action is not taken.

Fossil fuel combustion

South Africa, in particular, has come under scrutiny for its reliance on fossil fuels, especially coal. The country's use of coal and other hydrocarbons produces hundreds of millions of tons of emissions annually, leading to hazardous levels of air pollution. Mpumalanga, a province in South Africa, has been identified as a global hotspot for nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide emissions, posing significant health risks to vulnerable communities in the region.

The impact of fossil fuel combustion extends beyond air pollution to social and economic costs. In South Africa, the social cost of fossil fuel combustion, including deaths, diseases, and lost working days, has been estimated at R550 billion per year, significantly exceeding the revenues earned from fossil fuel combustion. Fossil fuel combustion also contributes to climate change, exacerbating the health impacts of rising temperatures and extreme weather events.

To address the issue of fossil fuel combustion and air pollution, there have been calls for a transition to cleaner energy sources. The International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) and Greenpeace have recommended investing in clean technologies, renewable energy sources, and sustainable development practices. Additionally, the World Health Organization (WHO) is providing technical support to countries in Africa to promote the use of health-friendly household fuels and technologies, aiming to reduce household air pollution.

Furthermore, some African countries are taking initiatives to improve air quality. For example, Egypt's Greater Cairo Air Pollution Management and Climate Change Project focuses on solid waste management and the expansion of electric buses and vehicles. These efforts demonstrate a growing recognition of the need to reduce fossil fuel combustion and mitigate its harmful impacts on human health, the environment, and economic development.

Residential fuel use

Africa is facing a severe health crisis due to air pollution, with an estimated 1.1 million people dying prematurely from air pollution-related diseases in 2019. The death rate linked to air pollution in Africa is almost double the global average. Residential fuel use, particularly the use of polluting fuels like charcoal, kerosene, and biomass, is a significant contributor to this crisis.

The incomplete combustion of these solid fuels produces high levels of household air pollution, including small soot particles that penetrate deep into the lungs. In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor smoke can far exceed safe levels for fine particles. This prolonged exposure to household air pollution has been linked to an increased risk of pneumonia, acute lower respiratory infections, lung cancer, tuberculosis, cataracts, nasopharyngeal and laryngeal cancers, and cardiovascular issues.

The impact of residential fuel use on children is particularly concerning. In 2019, an estimated 14% of all deaths in children under five across Africa were linked to air pollution, making it the third leading risk factor for child mortality in the region. Exposure to household air pollution has been found to almost double the risk of childhood pneumonia, contributing to over 50% of premature deaths from this disease. Additionally, air pollution exposures during pregnancy and early childhood have been associated with brain injuries in children, resulting in a loss of cognitive function, reduced IQ, and decreased lifelong economic productivity.

To address the issue of residential fuel use and improve indoor air quality, it is essential to promote cleaner and more efficient cooking solutions. This may include adopting improved cookstoves that are designed to reduce smoke emissions or transitioning to alternative fuels, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or electricity, if accessible and affordable. Additionally, improving ventilation in homes can help reduce the concentration of indoor air pollutants. These interventions not only have the potential to improve health outcomes but also contribute to the overall socio-economic development of communities by reducing the burden of disease and enhancing human capital.

Industrial facilities

Africa is facing a severe air pollution crisis, with 1.1 million people dying prematurely from air pollution-related diseases in 2019. This figure equates to one-sixth of the total global estimate of 7 million deaths for that year. The continent is industrialising and urbanising rapidly, and its population is set to more than triple in this century, from 1.3 billion in 2020 to 4.3 billion by 2100.

To reduce air pollution from industrial facilities, governments and businesses must invest in clean, renewable energy sources and reduce reliance on coal, oil, and gas. Africa is well-positioned to take advantage of solar and wind power resources. Additionally, improving waste management practices and implementing pollution reduction strategies in priority sectors can help mitigate the impact of industrial facilities on air quality.

It is important to note that the economic costs of air pollution in African cities are projected to increase by 600% over the next 18 years if no action is taken. However, transitioning to cleaner energy sources and improving waste management practices can not only reduce air pollution but also unlock significant economic benefits for the continent.

Forest fires

Africa is experiencing some of the worst air pollution in the world, with air pollution being the second leading cause of death across the continent. Forest fires are a major source of this air pollution.

People in many parts of Africa have long set fires during the dry seasons to clear land and release mineral nutrients held in vegetation back into the soil. This practice is especially prevalent in north equatorial Africa, spanning about 15 countries from Senegal and Ivory Coast in the west to South Sudan, Uganda, and Kenya in the east. Here, many people live as nomadic herders amid vast expanses of savanna and grasslands, and they traditionally set fires during the November-February dry season.

However, this trend is changing. In recent years, the same regions have seen steady population growth, the conversion of savannas into villages and crop fields, and income growth. As a result, fewer people are setting fires, in order to protect infrastructure and livelihoods. From 2005 to 2017, the region saw a 4.5% overall decrease in lower-atmosphere concentrations of nitrogen oxides during the dry season. The decline has been so strong that it has offset a doubling of emissions from fossil-fuel use in vehicles, factories, and other sources.

Despite this positive trend, the fire-aerosol positive feedback mechanism in Africa means that a warmer, drier climate will likely lead to more persistent burning in the future. The unique alternation between dry and wet seasons along the equator extends the lifespan of aerosols. This creates a feedback loop, where the fire is essentially feeding itself as the aerosols induced by the perpetual conflagration interact with the climate. This mechanism is self-sustaining and has some resilience built into it.

Desert dust

Saharan dust intrusions have a significant impact on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coastal regions. North African dust is transported towards the Atlantic Ocean and/or the Mediterranean Sea. Dust aerosols can have health, visibility, environmental, and economic impacts on large population centers and industrial areas along these coasts. For example, during Saharan dust storms that affect Europe, there is evidence of an association between windblown desert dust and mortality and morbidity. The UN estimates that in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, approximately 13 billion USD in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is lost annually due to dust storms.

The Mediterranean region is particularly prone to dust episodes, both from the Saharan Desert and the Middle East. The Gobi Desert is Asia's primary dust source, with transport reaching as far as the Hawaiian Islands. Dust transport depends on two main factors: the availability of light, dry mineral, and organic sediment sources, and wind conditions that inject particulate matter into the troposphere and facilitate its transport. As a result, dust episodes tend to be seasonal, following changes in wind conditions. Wind patterns also determine the size of particulate matter and the height of the dust cloud.

Saharan Dust transport towards the Caribbean following trade winds typically occurs during spring, summer, and early fall when the Saharan Air Layer forms, carrying very dry and dusty air masses across the Atlantic. Early spring is the most active period for Saharan dust transport into Europe. Drought conditions and desertification associated with global warming can increase the amount of dust available for transport.

In Africa, air pollution was linked to 1.1 million deaths in 2019, with the death rate linked to air pollution being almost double the global average. The impact of air pollution in Africa is not limited to health but also affects human capital and the economy.

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