Meghan Hodges
China's environmental crisis, caused by decades of rapid industrialisation, poses a threat to the health and livelihoods of its 1.4 billion citizens, as well as the global fight against climate change. China's carbon emissions, as the world's largest source of greenhouse gas emissions, endanger global efforts to tackle climate change, and its carbon-intensive industries have caused additional environmental challenges, including water scarcity and soil contamination. The country's air pollution is notoriously bad, with carbon-intensive industries, energy consumption, coal-burning power plants, transportation, and vehicle emissions all contributing significantly to the problem. Furthermore, China is the leading global generator of plastic waste, with 13% of its domestic plastic waste polluting the environment.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Main sources of pollution | Coal power plants, industry, transportation, household solid fuel usage, vehicle emissions, agricultural sector, plastic products |
| Impact on health | Exposure to fine particles that penetrate deep into the lungs and cardiovascular system, causing stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, respiratory infections |
| Number of deaths caused by air pollution in 2017 | 1.24 million |
| Total number of deaths caused by air pollution since 2000 | 30 million |
| China's energy consumption generated by coal in 1990 | 76.2% |
| China's energy consumption generated by coal in 2019 | 57.7% |
| Beijing's PM2.5 concentration during 2015 celebrations | 19.5 μg/m3 |
| Average PM2.5 in 74 key cities in 2015 | 55 μg/m3 |
| China's contribution to global coal consumption in 2019 | 36% |
| Number of vehicles in China in 2020 | 360 million |
| Beijing's air quality improvement | 25% reduction in PM2.5 from 2012 to 2017 |
| China's contribution to global plastic waste | 30% |
| Percentage of China's domestic plastic waste that is unmanaged | 13% |
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What You'll Learn
Coal consumption
China's coal reserves are largely concentrated in the northern provinces of Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, and Shaanxi, and the transport of coal to other regions consumes a significant amount of rail capacity. The country's largest coal mines and companies are also based in these regions, with Shenhua Group, China National Coal Group, and Shanxi Coking Coal Group being the top producers.
The Chinese government has recognised the need to reduce coal consumption and has implemented policies to decrease its use over the years. During the 13th Five-Year Plan (2016-2020), China introduced initiatives such as capping coal use, removing dispersed coal from urban areas, transitioning from coal to natural gas for heating, and tightening emissions standards for power plants. These policies aimed to reduce local air pollution and improve air quality.
Despite these efforts, coal-fired power plants, heavy industries, and households continue to contribute significantly to air pollution in China. In 2017 and 2018, coal consumption in China increased, and the country continued to expand its coal-fired power capacity. This expansion is often justified as a backup for intermittent renewable energy sources, but it also locks the country into a continued reliance on coal.
The use of ""dispersed coal," which is raw coal burned for heating and cooking, is a particular concern. While it accounts for only 2% of total coal consumption, it results in 5 to 10 times more air pollution per unit of energy due to inefficient combustion and a lack of emissions filtering. This type of coal is especially impactful during the winter in northern China.
China's efforts to reduce coal consumption and transition to cleaner energy sources are crucial for improving air quality and public health. The country's large-scale investments in renewable energy projects and carbon trading schemes are positive steps towards reducing coal's dominance in the energy sector. However, the continued expansion of coal-fired power plants and the challenge of implementing strict coal reduction policies while balancing economic growth present ongoing obstacles to reducing pollution from coal consumption in China.
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Vehicle emissions
China has been the largest vehicle market in the world since 2009, and vehicle emissions have become a significant source of air pollution in Chinese cities. The total number of vehicles in China reached 360 million in 2020, and vehicles are now a major culprit of air pollution. This is particularly true in larger cities, where the concentration of exhaust from vehicles is much higher. According to China's Ministry of Ecology and Environment, vehicle emissions were responsible for about 45% of Beijing's air pollution in 2018 and nearly 30% of Shanghai's.
The development of an integrated mechanism of social participation, technical revolution, and regulatory innovation in vehicles, fuel, and roads is suggested to break the stalemate between air pollution and the automobile boom in China. To that end, Hainan has become the first province in China to ban the sale of fuel-powered cars by 2030, aiming to accelerate the reduction of local air pollution emissions. However, studies on the effectiveness of such vehicle emission control policies (VECPs) in reducing air pollutants are limited.
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Plastic waste
Plastic pollution is a significant environmental problem in China, which is the world's biggest producer, consumer, and exporter of plastics. China's large population, which is growing by 0.5% annually, contributes to the high levels of plastic consumption and waste in the country.
China's plastic waste generation is staggering, producing about 60 million tonnes of plastic waste in 2020, according to the China National Resources Recycling Association. In 2021, this figure increased to 80.1 million tons, with China accounting for 20% of the world's plastic consumption. However, China's recycling rate for plastics is relatively low, with only about 16 million tonnes of the 60 million tonnes recycled in 2020, or an average recycling rate of 17%. This means that a significant amount of plastic waste ends up in landfills or the environment, contributing to pollution.
China's plastic pollution problem is further exacerbated by its role as the world's largest importer of plastic waste for over two decades. In 2017, before the import ban was implemented, China imported almost 600,000 metric tons of plastic waste. This waste-recycling industry contributed to rapid industrialization and economic growth but also led to increased air and water pollution. Recognizing the environmental impact, China implemented an import ban on solid waste, including plastics, in 2018, with further restrictions added in subsequent years.
To address domestic plastic pollution, China has implemented various policies and regulations. These include bans on free plastic bags in supermarkets and shopping malls, production and use of ultra-thin plastic bags, and non-degradable single-use plastic straws. There has also been a focus on promoting alternatives to single-use plastics and boosting recycling efforts. China has diversified its regulatory instruments, with prohibitive bans and information campaigns dominating its plastic policy landscape.
China's efforts to tackle plastic pollution are crucial, as plastic can take up to 500 years to decompose, causing long-term environmental damage. The country's actions have the potential to significantly impact the global plastic pollution challenge and contribute to its carbon neutrality ambitions.
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Waterways contaminated by industrial discharges
China's rapid industrialization and urbanization, coupled with inadequate investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure, have resulted in widespread water pollution. Continuous emissions from manufacturing are the largest contributors to the deterioration of drinking water quality across the country.
In 2005, the Jilin chemical plant explosions in Jilin City caused a large discharge of nitrobenzene into the Songhua River. The levels of the carcinogen were so high that the entire water supply to Harbin city, with a population of 3.8 million, was cut off for five days. This is just one example of how industrial discharges have contaminated China's waterways, rendering many of them unfit for direct human use.
In southern China, the apparel and textile industry's discharge of wastewater containing reactive dyes is a significant environmental challenge. This wastewater is characterized by high color content, suspended solids, salts, nutrients, and toxic substances such as heavy metals and chlorinated organic compounds. These pollutants pose risks to human health, including exposure to harmful constituents such as chloride, nitrate, nitrite, and sulfate.
In addition to the direct discharge of pollutants into waterways, industrial activities also contribute to water pollution through indirect means. For example, in 2013, the Hubei Shuanghuan Science and Technology Stock Co. discharged ammonia into the Fuhe River in central Hubei province, poisoning at least 100 tonnes of fish. This incident demonstrates how industrial pollution can have far-reaching consequences, causing environmental damage, public concern, and potential social unrest.
China has taken measures to address water pollution, including rapidly building out water infrastructure, increasing regulation, and exploring technological solutions. However, the country's enormous water consumption, driven by its large population and rapid economic development, continues to strain water resources.
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Household solid fuel usage
Solid fuel usage in households is a significant contributor to air pollution in China, particularly in rural areas. Solid fuels, including biomass (wood and crop residues) and coal, are used for cooking and heating in households. While the use of solid fuels in urban areas is declining, they are still extensively used in rural China, with approximately 46% of the population relying on them for energy. This is due to the availability of alternative energy sources in urban areas, while rural households continue to use solid fuels as a primary energy source.
The combustion of solid fuels produces indoor air pollution, which has severe health impacts. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that solid fuel usage in Chinese households causes approximately 420,000 premature deaths annually. The emissions from burning solid fuels include particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. These pollutants have serious health consequences, including respiratory illnesses, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, immune system weakening, and reduced lung function.
The impact of household solid fuel usage on air pollution is disproportionate to the amount of coal used. While households account for only 1.9% of China's total coal consumption in 2018, their emissions are less filtered, leading to higher levels of indoor air pollution. This is particularly concerning in rural areas, where many homes rely on solid fuels for cooking and heating.
The Chinese government has implemented policies to address household air pollution, such as the Clean Heating Plan for Northern China in Winter for 2017-2021, which aims to reduce residential emissions. Additionally, intervention technologies such as adding chimneys or implementing modernized bioenergy programs can help mitigate the pollution caused by solid fuel usage. However, these interventions require coordinated support from the government and the commercial sector to be effective.
The transition to clean fuels or electricity (CFE) for cooking and heating is also gaining traction in rural China. While CFE contributed to 59% and 15% of total energy consumption for cooking and heating, respectively, in 2012, solid fuels are still widely used for heating in rural areas. This transition to cleaner energy sources is crucial for improving air quality and reducing the health risks associated with solid fuel usage in Chinese households.
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Frequently asked questions
China's pollution stems from a variety of sources, including industrial, transportation, coal power plants, and household solid fuel usage. China's agricultural sector is also a significant source of waste, with farms generating more pollution than factories.
The Chinese government has implemented stricter regulations and enforced an Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution to reduce PM2.5 levels. They have also banned free plastic bags in shops and supermarkets, encouraging the use of cloth bags instead.
Air pollution in China has severe health consequences for its citizens, causing diseases such as stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory infections. It is estimated that air pollution causes about 2 million deaths in China per year. China's pollution also affects the global economy and global health, with its emissions contributing to climate change and the destruction of ecosystems.
