Greta Jimenez
The Clean Air Act requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set and periodically review national air quality standards for particulate matter (PM) and five other pollutants considered harmful to public health and the environment. The EPA established NAAQS for PM in 1971, and the standards have been revised over the years to protect public health. PM is a complex mixture of solids and aerosols composed of small droplets of liquid, dry solid fragments, and solid cores with liquid coatings. PM10 and PM2.5 are two common types of PM, with PM2.5 being a component of PM10. Short-term exposure to PM2.5 has been linked to several adverse health effects, including premature mortality, increased hospital admissions for heart or lung-related issues, and respiratory symptoms. On February 7, 2024, the EPA strengthened the NAAQS for PM, proposing to lower the primary annual PM2.5 standard while retaining the current primary 24-hour standards for PM2.5 and PM10.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | Airborne particulate matter (PM) is a mixture of chemical species, solids, and aerosols composed of small droplets of liquid, dry solid fragments, and solid cores with liquid coatings. |
| Composition | Particles may contain inorganic ions, metallic compounds, elemental carbon, organic compounds, and compounds from the earth’s crust. |
| Diameter | PM10: 10 microns or less in diameter, PM2.5: 2.5 microns or less in diameter. |
| Health Effects | Short-term exposure to PM2.5 has been linked to premature mortality, increased hospital admissions for heart or lung issues, acute and chronic bronchitis, asthma attacks, emergency room visits, respiratory symptoms, and restricted activity days, especially in infants, children, and older adults with pre-existing conditions. |
| Health Effects | Short-term exposure to PM10 has been associated with the worsening of respiratory diseases, including asthma and COPD, often leading to hospitalization. Long-term exposure to PM10 has been suggested to have a link to respiratory mortality. |
| Regulatory Standards | The Clean Air Act requires the EPA to set national air quality standards for particulate matter and periodically review and update these standards to protect public health. |
| National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) | On February 7, 2024, the EPA set the primary annual PM2.5 standard at 9.0 micrograms per cubic meter to protect public health and reduce harmful impacts. |
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What You'll Learn
The Clean Air Act and EPA standards
The Clean Air Act (CAA) is a comprehensive federal law that regulates air emissions from stationary and mobile sources. The Act mandates controls on air pollution from mobile sources by regulating the composition of fuels and emission-control components in motor vehicles and non-road engines. The Clean Air Act also requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health and welfare. These standards are set for six common "criteria pollutants": particulate matter, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead.
The Clean Air Act authorizes the EPA to regulate emissions of hazardous air pollutants and set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in every state. The Act was amended in 1977 and 1990 to set new goals and dates for achieving NAAQS, as many areas had failed to meet the initial deadlines. The 1990 amendments also made vehicle emission standards more stringent, requiring vehicle manufacturers to meet limits for hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates in the case of diesel vehicles.
Section 112 of the Clean Air Act specifically addresses emissions of hazardous air pollutants. It requires the EPA to establish emission standards, commonly referred to as "maximum achievable control technology" or "MACT" standards, for major sources of hazardous air pollutants. The EPA is also required to review these technology-based standards periodically to determine and address any residual risk.
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Particulate matter and health impacts
Airborne particulate matter (PM) is a mixture of many chemical species, composed of solids and aerosols of varying sizes, shapes, and chemical compositions. PM10, or particles with a diameter of 10 microns or less, can be inhaled into the lungs and induce adverse health effects. Fine particulate matter, or PM2.5, is defined as particles that are 2.5 microns or less in diameter, making up a portion of PM10. These particles can enter indoor spaces through doors, windows, and leakiness in building structures, and can also be generated by indoor activities such as smoking tobacco, cooking, burning wood, or using household cleaning products.
Short-term exposure to PM2.5 has been linked to various adverse health effects, including premature mortality, increased hospital admissions for heart or lung causes, acute and chronic bronchitis, asthma attacks, emergency room visits, respiratory symptoms, and restricted activity days. These impacts are most commonly reported in infants, children, and older adults with pre-existing heart or lung diseases. PM2.5 has also been associated with reduced lung function growth in children, with research showing that children living in communities with high levels of PM2.5 had slower lung growth and smaller lungs at age 18 compared to those in low PM2.5 areas.
Long-term exposure to PM2.5 has been linked to premature death, particularly in individuals with chronic heart or lung diseases. According to an analysis by the California Air Resources Board, PM2.5 exposure contributes to thousands of premature deaths, hospitalizations for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, and emergency room visits for asthma each year in California alone.
While the effects of long-term exposure to PM10 are less clear, several studies suggest a link between PM10 exposure and respiratory mortality. Short-term exposures to PM10 have been associated with the worsening of respiratory diseases, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), often leading to hospitalization and emergency department visits. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) published a review in 2015 concluding that particulate matter in outdoor air pollution causes lung cancer.
Overall, particulate matter pollution has serious health impacts, and it is important to limit exposure, especially for vulnerable groups such as children, older adults, and individuals with heart or lung diseases.
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PM2.5 and PM10 sources and effects
PM2.5 and PM10 are types of particulate matter and are harmful air pollutants found both indoors and outdoors. PM2.5 is generally defined as fine inhalable particles with diameters of 2.5 micrometres or less. They are primarily emitted from sources such as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks, and fires. PM2.5 is also formed through the combustion of fossil fuels, such as gasoline and diesel, and is emitted from vehicles, power plants, and industrial processes.
The health effects associated with PM2.5 exposure are significant and wide-ranging. Short-term exposures have been linked to premature mortality, increased hospital admissions for heart and lung issues, acute and chronic bronchitis, asthma attacks, and respiratory symptoms. These adverse effects are particularly pronounced in infants, children, and older adults with pre-existing heart or lung conditions. Moreover, long-term exposure to PM2.5 has been associated with an increased risk of premature death and other serious health complications.
PM10, also known as coarse particles, are primarily formed from physical processes and both natural and anthropogenic sources. Natural sources include sea spray, volcanic ash, and pollen, while anthropogenic sources include agricultural works, industrial emissions, and road traffic. PM10 particles have diameters of 10 micrometres or less and can be inhaled into the lungs, potentially causing adverse health effects.
The health impacts of short-term PM10 exposure are primarily associated with the exacerbation of respiratory diseases, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), often resulting in hospitalisations and emergency department visits. While the effects of long-term PM10 exposure are less clear, several studies suggest a potential link to respiratory mortality and lung cancer. Research indicates that children, infants, and individuals with pre-existing heart or lung conditions are more susceptible to the adverse effects of PM10 exposure.
To summarise, both PM2.5 and PM10 have significant health implications, with PM2.5 being generally considered more harmful due to its smaller particle size and associated health risks. Monitoring and regulating these particulate matters are crucial to protect public health and ensure that ambient air quality standards are met.
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Air Quality Index (AQI) and health
Air quality can be measured by two methods: firstly, by estimating the amount of emission from pollutant sources, and, more accurately, by estimating the amount of pollutants in the air. Air quality can fluctuate seasonally, by time of day, by location, and by changing weather conditions.
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a tool for communicating about outdoor air quality and health. The AQI includes six color-coded categories, each corresponding to a range of index values. The higher the AQI value, the greater the level of air pollution and the greater the health concern. For example, an AQI value of 50 or below represents good air quality, while an AQI value over 300 represents hazardous air quality. For each pollutant, an AQI value of 100 generally corresponds to an ambient air concentration that equals the level of the short-term national ambient air quality standard for protection of public health. AQI values at or below 100 are generally thought of as satisfactory. When AQI values are above 100, air quality is unhealthy: at first for certain sensitive groups of people, then for everyone as AQI values get higher.
The Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) is a national, simplified communication tool to measure and forecast air quality. The AQHI allows individuals to take action to protect their health and support active living. The index can help patients predict their exposures based on location and activity. Pharmacists can use the Air Quality Health Index tool to counsel their high-risk patients with asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, or diabetes, as well as seniors and families with children, on how they can reduce their exposure to air pollution. Reducing exposure can in turn lead to a decrease in health risk in terms of morbidity and mortality.
The effects of long-term exposure to particulate matter pollution include the increased incidence of lung cancer and pneumonia, as well as the increased development of atherosclerosis. Long-term exposure may also lead to the development of new asthma cases and may delay lung development in children. Worsening of cardiovascular diseases such as ischemia, including increased rates of myocardial infarction, increased incidence of cardiac arrhythmia, exacerbation of heart failure, and stroke, can also occur. Short-term exposures to PM10 have been associated primarily with the worsening of respiratory diseases, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), leading to hospitalization and emergency department visits. Short-term exposures to PM2.5 have been associated with premature mortality, increased hospital admissions for heart or lung causes, acute and chronic bronchitis, asthma attacks, emergency room visits, respiratory symptoms, and restricted activity days.
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Regulatory standards and review
The Clean Air Act requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set national air quality standards for particulate matter and five other pollutants considered harmful to public health and the environment. These other pollutants are ozone, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and lead. The EPA is also required to periodically review and update these standards as necessary to ensure that they provide adequate health and environmental protection.
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM, set by the EPA, aim to protect the public from the harmful health impacts of particle or soot pollution, which has been linked to serious and deadly illnesses. The EPA has set the level of the primary (health-based) annual PM2.5 standard at 9.0 micrograms per cubic meter, providing increased public health protection consistent with available health science.
The EPA is also revising the Air Quality Index (AQI) to improve public communications about the risks of PM2.5 exposures. The AQI is an essential tool for communicating air quality information to the public, with each pollutant assigned an AQI value that indicates the level of health concern. Values at or below 100 are generally considered satisfactory, while values above 100 indicate unhealthy air quality for certain sensitive groups and eventually everyone as values increase.
In addition to the NAAQS and AQI, the EPA also reviews secondary standards for the ecological effects of particulate matter and other pollutants. These standards recognize the impact of pollutants on ecosystems and the environment, not just human health. The EPA's ongoing commitment to reviewing and strengthening these standards ensures that the public and the environment are protected from the harmful effects of particulate pollution.
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Frequently asked questions
Particulate matter (PM) is a mixture of many chemical species, composed of solids and aerosols. It includes small droplets of liquid, dry solid fragments, and solid cores with liquid coatings. PM is defined by the diameter of its particles, with PM10 being particles of 10 microns or less, and PM2.5 being particles of 2.5 microns or less.
Particulate pollution is linked to a range of adverse health effects, especially for infants, children, and older adults with pre-existing heart or lung diseases. Short-term exposure to PM2.5 is associated with increased hospital admissions for heart and lung issues, asthma attacks, respiratory symptoms, and restricted activity days. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 has been linked to premature death. Short-term exposure to PM10 is associated with the worsening of respiratory diseases, including asthma and COPD.
The EPA sets national air quality standards for particulate matter in the United States. On February 7, 2024, the EPA strengthened the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter (PM NAAQS) to protect public health, setting the primary annual PM2.5 standard at 9.0 micrograms per cubic meter.
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is used to communicate air quality to the public. An AQI value of 100 corresponds to the level of the short-term national ambient air quality standard for protection of public health. When AQI values are above 100, air quality is considered unhealthy, first for sensitive groups and then for everyone as values increase.
