Kiera Jefferson
Shipping and trade by sea have played a significant role in the development of the world economy. However, the marine shipping industry is a major source of pollution, contributing to climate change and ocean acidification. Ship-sourced pollution can be categorised into two types: air pollution and marine pollution. Air pollution from ships includes greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), and particulate matter. Marine pollution includes oil spills, sewage, greywater, solid waste, and plastic pollution. Noise pollution caused by shipping is also a concern, as it can harm marine species that rely on sound for communication and survival. To address these issues, international agreements such as MARPOL and the Kyoto Protocol have been implemented, with a focus on reducing emissions and protecting the natural environment.
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What You'll Learn
Greenhouse gas emissions
Greenhouse gases (GHG) are one of the most significant contributors to climate change and public health impacts from ship-source pollution. The marine shipping industry's share of total emissions from human sources includes carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), which have far-reaching consequences for the environment and human health.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has been actively addressing the issue of GHG emissions from ships. In 2018, the IMO adopted an initial strategy to reduce ship-source GHG emissions, aiming for a 50% reduction by 2050 compared to 2008 levels. This strategy was revised in July 2023, with a new commitment to achieving net-zero emissions by or around 2050. The IMO has implemented a combination of short-term and mid-term measures, such as improving ship energy efficiency and reducing carbon intensity, to meet these targets.
To achieve the 2023 IMO GHG Strategy targets, a transition to alternative low- and zero-emission fuels is necessary. This includes exploring various fuel options such as ammonia, biofuels, electric power, fuel cells, hydrogen, methanol, and wind. The IMO has adopted guidelines to assess the GHG intensity and sustainability of these alternative fuels, considering factors like safety, regulation, pricing, and lifecycle emissions.
The shipping industry has also implemented practical measures to reduce GHG emissions, such as using shore power while ships are docked, reducing fuel sulphur content, and slowing down vessel speeds. These measures have had positive effects on air quality and public health, particularly in Canada, where air pollutants have significantly decreased since 1990.
Despite these efforts, the shipping industry's progress in reducing GHG emissions has been criticized as unacceptably slow, especially considering its impact on the climate. There is a recognized need for accelerated action to align with the temperature goals of the Paris Agreement, which aims to keep global temperature rise well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.
In summary, GHG emissions from ships are a significant concern, and while steps are being taken to address them, more urgent and comprehensive action is required to meet the challenges posed by climate change.
Chemical Pollution: Understanding the Toxic Threat
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Oil and petroleum leaks
The chemicals in crude oil are mostly hydrocarbons that contain toxic chemicals such as benzenes, toluene, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These chemicals can introduce adverse health effects when inhaled. In addition, these chemicals can be oxidized by atmospheric oxidants to form fine particulate matter after they evaporate. These particulates can penetrate the lungs and carry toxic chemicals into the human body. Oil spills also harm sea creatures, ruin beaches, and make seafood unsafe to eat. Birds are also affected as oil penetrates their plumage, reducing its insulating ability and making them more vulnerable to temperature changes and less buoyant in the water.
The cleanup and recovery process from an oil spill is difficult and depends on factors such as the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water, and the types of shorelines affected. The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 established that those responsible for oil spills can be held liable to pay for cleanup and restoration through a process called Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA). Over the last 30 years, NOAA has helped recover over $9 billion from those responsible for oil spills to restore the ocean and Great Lakes.
To prevent and minimize oil spills and their impacts, several international agreements and regulations have been put in place. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) includes regulations for the prevention of pollution by oil. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has also addressed the shipping industry's impact. Additionally, the IMO has defined short- and mid-term goals for reducing GHG emissions from ships, with a target of net-zero emissions by 2050.
Despite these efforts, oil spills continue to occur. Notable examples include the Deepwater Horizon spill, the Ixtoc I spill, and the Exxon Valdez oil spill in the North-East Pacific off the coast of Alaska. Thousands of smaller oil spills also occur each year, some spilling less than a barrel of oil. These spills can have significant impacts on vulnerable ecosystems, such as those in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France, and the Sundarban.
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Noxious liquid substances
Category X NLS presents a major hazard and therefore justifies the prohibition of discharge into the marine environment. Category Y NLS presents a hazard and can cause harm, justifying limitations on the quality and quantity of discharge. Category Z NLS presents a minor hazard, requiring less stringent restrictions on the quality and quantity of discharge. Finally, Category OS (Other Substances) are those that do not fall into the previous three categories and are considered to present no harm when discharged.
The IBC Code, or the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk, provides international standards for the safe carriage of NLS. Chemical tankers built after July 1, 1986, must comply with the IBC Code, which prescribes design and construction standards and identifies the equipment necessary to minimise risks to the ship, its crew, and the environment.
In addition to MARPOL, the SOLAS Convention (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) also contains regulations governing the carriage of chemicals by ship. SOLAS Chapter VII covers the carriage of dangerous goods, while MARPOL Annex II specifically addresses NLS. Both conventions require compliance with the IBC Code for ships involved in the transport of bulk liquid chemicals.
To prevent pollution from chemical tankers, Annex II of the International Maritime Organization's Pollution Convention outlines requirements for ships carrying NLS in bulk. These requirements include categorizing NLS, discharging NLS residues or mixtures, pumping, piping, and unloading arrangements, reception facilities, unloading procedures, and the issuance of an International Pollution Prevention Certificate for the carriage of NLS in bulk.
Combating Plastic Pollution: Strategies for a Greener Tomorrow
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Solid waste and plastic pollution
Plastic pollution from ships is a major contributor to the issue of marine plastic pollution. A study published in the Journal of Maritime & Transportation Science indicates that plastics make up 60-80% of marine debris. Despite global efforts and bans on the disposal of plastic at sea, ships continue to be a significant source of plastic pollution. Plastic debris can have fatal consequences for marine life, including fish, seabirds, and mammals, who may mistake plastic for food or become entangled in plastic items.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has adopted measures to address ship-sourced pollution, including the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), which contains specific regulations for the prevention of pollution by garbage from ships in Annex V. This annex seeks to reduce and eliminate the discharge of garbage from ships into the sea, including plastics, food waste, cargo residues, and other waste generated during a ship's normal operation.
To assist in the implementation of MARPOL Annex V, the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) has developed guidelines, which include standards for shipboard incinerators to safely dispose of garbage and other shipboard waste. Additionally, the IMO has set short- and mid-term goals for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from ships, recognizing the impact of the shipping industry on climate change.
The prevention of solid waste and plastic pollution from ships is crucial to protecting marine life and ecosystems. While regulations and initiatives such as MARPOL Annex V and the IMO's climate change goals are positive steps, continued efforts are necessary to address the ongoing threat of plastic pollution in the world's oceans.
Noise and Light Pollution: Similarities and Harmful Effects
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Noise pollution
Marine species rely heavily on sound for their daily activities, including communication, finding food, reproduction, and navigation. The noise generated by ships can interfere with these natural sounds, leading to behavioural changes in marine life. For example, they may abandon their preferred habitats, alter their mating calls, or change their feeding and nursing behaviours. Additionally, ship noise has been linked to increased stress levels in marine mammals, further reducing their resilience to existing challenges such as water pollution, climate change, and habitat or food loss.
Studies have shown that underwater-radiated noise from commercial ships can have both short-term and long-term negative consequences on marine life. In recognition of this, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has issued guidelines for reducing underwater radiated noise from shipping to mitigate adverse impacts. The URN Action Plan, approved by the IMO's Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC 82), aims to address barriers to the implementation of the Revised URN Guidelines and will be reviewed and revised as needed.
To address the impacts of underwater noise, the IMO, in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF), launched the Global Partnership for Mitigation of Underwater Noise from Shipping (GloNoise Partnership). Additionally, IMO has adopted routing measures to protect whales and other cetaceans during breeding seasons by keeping ships away from specified areas.
There are several methods to reduce noise pollution from ships. One approach is to place the engine on mounts to prevent direct contact with the hull and reduce noise transfer. Maintaining the ship's hull and propeller to remove the buildup of aquatic organisms can also help minimise noise. Another strategy is to avoid using noisy equipment, such as echosounders, when not necessary. Slowing down is another effective way to reduce noise emissions, with a 10% reduction in speed potentially lowering the total sound energy from shipping by around 40%.
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Frequently asked questions
There are two main types of ship-sourced pollution: marine pollution and air pollution.
Marine pollution from ships can include oil spills, sewage, and greywater discharge. Greywater is wastewater from sinks, showers, galleys, laundry, and cleaning activities that can contain harmful pollutants such as detergents, oil, grease, metals, and food waste.
Air pollution from ships includes the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), and particulate matter. These emissions contribute to climate change and have negative impacts on human health.
International regulations such as the International Maritime Organization's (IMO) International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) aim to prevent and minimize ship-sourced pollution. MARPOL includes annexes addressing specific types of pollution, such as oil pollution and air pollution.
