Removal Of Lead From Gasoline: A Public Health Victory

Air pollution is a pressing issue that has affected human health and the environment since humans started burning materials for fuel. While air pollution has many sources, one significant contributor is gasoline, which is used in cars, trucks, motorcycles, aircraft, and boats. To address this issue, governments have implemented various measures, including the removal of specific air pollutants from gasoline. One notable example is the removal of lead from gasoline in New Zealand in 1996, which took over two decades due to government delay and evasion despite international evidence and research highlighting the harm caused by lead exposure, particularly to child cognitive function and behaviour. In the United States, initiatives such as the Clean Air Act and the Clear Skies Initiative have aimed to reduce air pollution by targeting emissions of nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and mercury from power plants and vehicles. These efforts reflect a broad bipartisan consensus on the need to improve air quality and address the impact of gasoline on the environment.

Air Pollutant Removed from Gasoline

Lead was removed from gasoline in New Zealand in 1996

The delay in removing lead from gasoline in New Zealand was due to several factors, including industry lobbying by lead additive suppliers, weak policymaking machinery, and a lack of a precautionary principle in risk management policies. Government agencies frequently took a stance of delay and evasion, claiming that it was necessary to establish the presence of a hazard before taking action. There was also a lack of sympathy towards a precautionary approach, with little evidence that officials were concerned about protecting child health, even when presented with research on the risks of lead exposure.

In the 1980s, Labour Party Member of Parliament (MP) Philip Woollaston attempted to legislate for unleaded gasoline with the Lead Pollution Control Bill. However, his efforts were met with scorn by members of the governing National Party, who believed that New Zealand had clean air and pure light. This attitude persisted despite evidence that more people died annually from air pollution than motor vehicle crashes. The Toxic Substances Board, a Department of Health advisory body, recommended removing lead from gasoline as early as 1981 due to health risks, but this advice was not heeded.

The decision to finally phase out leaded gasoline in New Zealand was driven by engineering and cost considerations, as it became apparent that the country would be unable to take advantage of new engine technologies and would face fuel penalties if it continued to use leaded gasoline. The health issues associated with lead exposure were still being contested at the time, and there was never a quantification of the health costs of using leaded gasoline in New Zealand. The successful removal of lead from gasoline in New Zealand provides valuable lessons for controlling other environmental pollutants in the country and internationally.

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 required cleaner-burning reformulated gasoline

The Clean Air Act, first passed in 1970 in the US, sought to reduce air pollution. Its amendments in 1990 required cleaner-burning reformulated gasoline to reduce air pollution in metropolitan areas with significant ground-level ozone pollution. The reformulated gasoline (RFG) program, mandated by Congress in the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, aimed to reduce smog-forming and toxic pollutants in the air. The first phase of the RFG program began in 1995, targeting nine cities with the worst ozone problems, with other cities allowed to opt in. About 30% of gasoline sold in the US is reformulated, and it has significantly contributed to the country's smog reduction strategy, with about 75 million people breathing cleaner air because of it.

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 also required ultra-low sulfur gasoline, with refiners mandated as of January 1, 2017, to supply gasoline with 97% less sulfur content than in 2004. Lower sulfur content reduces emissions from old and new vehicles and is necessary for advanced vehicle emission-control devices to function properly.

While the US implemented the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, other countries also took steps to improve air quality by targeting gasoline composition. For example, New Zealand removed lead from gasoline in 1996, achieving this milestone after more than two decades of effort. The process of policy development for this change in New Zealand has been studied to identify lessons for controlling environmental pollutants in other countries.

The US aims to reduce emissions of nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and mercury

The US has been taking several measures to reduce emissions of nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and mercury. The Clean Air Act, first passed in 1970, seeks to reduce air pollution in the country. Its 1990 amendments required cleaner-burning reformulated gasoline to reduce air pollution in metropolitan areas with significant ground-level ozone pollution. The Act's New Source Review program has also contributed to the increases in coal plant environmental retrofits.

The Mercury and Air Toxics Standards, issued in 2011 and set to take effect in 2015, do not directly regulate sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxide, but the standards are expected to lead coal-fired power plants to install equipment that further limits sulfur dioxide emissions. The Acid Rain Program (ARP), established under Title IV of the Clean Air Act, requires significant emission reductions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, the primary precursors of acid rain, from the power sector. The program was phased in, with the final 2010 sulfur dioxide cap set at 8.95 million tons, half the emissions from the power sector in 1980.

The decline in emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the late 2000s was primarily due to coal plants employing strategies to reduce emissions, not a reduction in coal use. This decline was also due to an increasing number of coal-fired units retrofitted with flue-gas desulfurization (FGD), or scrubbers, to coal plants switching to lower sulfur coal, and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) to limit nitrogen oxide emissions. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 established a national cap-and-trade program for sulfur dioxide and required other controls for nitrogen oxide emissions from fossil-fueled electric power plants.

In addition to the above, the removal of lead from gasoline in the 1990s is an example of successful pollution control in New Zealand. Despite evidence that vehicle air pollution caused more deaths than motor vehicle crashes, and the risk to child health from lead exposure, the process of policy development to remove lead from gasoline in New Zealand was one of delay and evasion by government agencies. The US can learn from this case study and take a proactive approach to reducing emissions of nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and mercury.

New Zealand's government delayed removing lead from gasoline

The removal of lead from gasoline in New Zealand was a prolonged process that took over two decades. During this period, the New Zealand government and bureaucracy consistently delayed and evaded taking action, despite international evidence and local research indicating the harmful effects of lead exposure on child cognitive function and behaviour.

The lead additive supplier, Associated Octel, owned by major oil companies, successfully lobbied the government and provided counter-information to undermine international scientific studies. This industry power, coupled with the absence of a precautionary principle in risk management policies, contributed to the slow policy response. New Zealand authorities claimed that international research did not apply to their country and argued for the need to establish the presence of a hazard before taking action.

The weak policymaking machinery and a lack of technical expertise within the Ministry of Energy and the Department of Health also played a role in the delay. There was a lack of personnel competent in addressing technically complex issues, and the diffusion of responsibility among government agencies further hindered progress. The government's approach was described as "floundering" by refinery management, who were frustrated by the lack of clear direction.

Additionally, modifications to the country's only refinery in the early 1980s limited the capacity to produce unleaded gasoline. These changes, along with subsequent decisions, reduced the refinery's flexibility in supplying the local market with unleaded gasoline. It was not until 1996 that lead was finally removed from gasoline in New Zealand.

Burning fossil fuels and car exhausts produce NMVOCs

The removal of lead from gasoline has been a significant step in reducing air pollution. In New Zealand, for instance, it took over two decades to achieve the elimination of leaded gasoline, despite international evidence and original research highlighting the harm caused by lead exposure, particularly to child cognitive function and behaviour. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 in the US also required cleaner-burning reformulated gasoline to reduce air pollution in metropolitan areas with significant ground-level ozone pollution.

Burning fossil fuels and car exhausts produce non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), which are a set of organic compounds that are typically photochemically reactive in the atmosphere. NMVOCs are identical to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) but exclude methane due to its non-toxic nature and low reactivity. However, methane is a very potent greenhouse gas with a long lifetime in the atmosphere. NMVOCs carry importance due to their influence on atmospheric ozone, which is formed by the reaction of sunlight with various emitted compounds, including NMHCs (a type of NMVOC), methane, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides.

NMVOCs are produced by various sources, including vegetation, biomass burning, geogenic sources such as volcanism and natural gas seepage, and human activities like fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes, and vehicle emissions. Vehicle emissions, in particular, have been a significant contributor to the growth of NMVOC emissions, with a notable increase from 6% to 33% between 1980 and 2005 in China. During the same period, China's overall NMVOC emissions increased by 4.2 times, coinciding with the country's economic growth and changes in fuel consumption.

To address the issue of NMVOCs and other pollutants, regulatory efforts have focused on reducing emissions from vehicles, industrial sources, and other air pollution sources. These include emission standards, the use of catalytic converters in cars, and the implementation of the Clean Air Act in the US. Additionally, the reduction in emissions observed in America and Europe between 1970 and 2010 has been attributed to the use of greener fuels for transport and evolving emission standards. These measures aim to mitigate the harmful impacts of air pollution, which is estimated to cause over 5 million deaths annually due to fossil fuel use and motor vehicle emissions.

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