Meghan Hodges
Air pollution in Mexico, particularly in Mexico City, remains a critical issue, despite significant progress since the 1980s and 1990s. The country still faces high pollution levels, especially in urban areas, with a 2023 report ranking Xonacatlán as the most polluted city in Mexico, based on fine air particulate matter concentration (PM2.5). Mexico City, which was once named the world's most polluted city, has since dropped to 917th place in 2021. However, it continues to exceed the World Health Organization's guidelines for PM2.5 concentration, and air pollution remains a major health, environmental, and economic concern.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Population | Increased from 3 million in 1950 to over 120 million today |
| Vehicles | 3.5 million registered vehicles, 30% of which are over 20 years old |
| Industrial growth | Over 11,000 tons of waste material emitted daily during industrialization |
| Wildfires | 66 fires in the capital and 130 in the State of Mexico contributed to worsening air quality |
| Ground-level ozone | Concentration was 1.9 times the acceptable limit in 2016 |
| Volcanic activity | Popocatepetl's activity has been linked to increased contamination levels |
| Indoor air pollution | Caused by the use of organic fuels for cooking and heating |
| Land use change | 90% of changes are made illegally, contributing to deforestation |
| Air pollution sources | Vehicle emissions, factories, power plants, oil refineries |
| Air quality index | Mexico City dropped to 917th most polluted city in 2021 |
| Air pollution consequences | Health issues, environmental harm, economic impact |
| Air pollutant standards | IMECA index used to measure health risks |
| Most polluted city in Mexico | Xonacatlán in 2023 |
| Air pollution solutions | Electric vehicles, public transport, renewable energy, improved cookstoves |
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What You'll Learn
Mexico City's air pollution
The causes of Mexico City's air pollution are multifaceted. The city's industrialization and urbanization during the 20th century led to a rapid increase in population, with the number of residents growing from 3.1 million in the 1950s to 14 million in the 1980s. This population boom resulted in a corresponding increase in human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and vehicle emissions, which severely impacted air quality. The proliferation of vehicles, with a doubling of the vehicle fleet from 1992 to 2012, has been a significant contributor to air pollution. Additionally, the city's topography, located in a basin, tends to trap air pollutants.
The Mexican government has implemented various measures to combat air pollution, such as restricting vehicle usage, limiting factory greenhouse gas emissions, and requiring the reformulation of gasoline. The Mexican Atmospheric Environmental Contingency Plan (AECP), reactivated in 2016, includes further restrictions on vehicle usage and aims to reduce factory emissions. The government has also prioritized the expansion of public transportation, with initiatives like the expansion of the city's subway network and bike-sharing programs.
To address indoor air pollution, there has been a push for households to transition from solid fuels like wood and agricultural waste to cleaner alternatives like propane (LPG). Improved cookstoves with chimneys have been introduced, reducing exposure to toxic pollutants by half. However, the cost of adopting LPG can be a barrier for some households.
While progress has been made, there is still work to be done to improve Mexico City's air quality. The city's government recognizes the importance of reducing air pollution for both public health and economic development, and further efforts are needed to implement aggressive policies that target the root causes of this complex issue.
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Population growth and industrialisation
Mexico has experienced rapid population growth and industrialization, particularly in the second half of the 20th century. The population grew from 3 million in 1950 to over 120 million today, with the youth comprising a large cohort. This growth has been most prominent in the northern states, especially along the US-Mexico border, due to the 1967 US-Mexico maquiladora agreement, which allowed duty-free imports to the US. Since the adoption of NAFTA in 1994, the non-border maquiladora share of exports has increased, leading to decentralization and rapid economic growth in Mexican states. From 2000 to 2015, states like Quintana Roo (Cancun) and Baja California Sur (La Paz) experienced population growth of over one-third, while the whole of Mexico grew by 22.6%.
The Greater Mexico City metropolitan area, which includes Mexico City and adjacent municipalities, is the most populous in the country, with an estimated 21.8 million people in 2020, accounting for about 18% of the nation's population. However, the average annual population growth rate of Mexico City was only 0.2%, while states like Quintana Roo and Baja California Sur had much higher growth rates of 4.7% and 3.4%, respectively. The high population concentration in Greater Mexico City has had significant environmental impacts, with the city once named the world's most polluted.
The industrialization process in Mexico, particularly after the Mexican Revolution (1910-1917), transformed the economy and society. It led to the urbanization of the country, impacting agriculture and other primary sectors, as well as the relationship between the private sector, labour, and the government. However, industrialization has also contributed to pollution, with industrial growth being one of the factors affecting air quality. Mexico City's topography, located in a basin, further exacerbates the issue as air pollutants tend to be trapped.
The country's economic policies have prioritized stabilization, aiming for a "free market" and globally competitive economy. While the unemployment rate has remained low, with nearly all of the economically active population employed, there has been little improvement in living standards. Additionally, the labour market has not strengthened, and Mexico faces challenges in strengthening productive chains, developing national suppliers, and raising the national content of exports.
To address pollution, Mexico has implemented measures such as the Mexican Atmospheric Environmental Contingency Plan (AECP), which restricts vehicle use and limits greenhouse gas emissions from factories. However, Mexico has not set a net-zero target, and its ambition to fight climate change is considered insufficient due to the lack of a concrete decarbonization plan. The country aims to achieve zero deforestation by 2030, and efforts to improve air quality include modifying mobility systems to prioritize public and active transport, as well as encouraging the use of improved cookstoves and cleaner fuels.
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Vehicle emissions
Mexico City was once dubbed the world's most polluted city. While it has since dropped to 917th place in terms of air pollution, the city still struggles with poor air quality. Vehicle emissions are a significant contributor to this issue.
The number of vehicles in Mexico has increased dramatically over the years, with more than 3.5 million vehicles registered in the country, 30% of which are over 20 years old. This proliferation of vehicles, particularly older cars, has led to high levels of emissions and poor air quality. In fact, older cars account for a disproportionately large share of emissions. For example, model year 1994-2005 passenger vehicles registered in the State of Mexico made up only 7% of the sampled fleet but contributed 25-42% of total emissions across pollutants. Taxis also showed significantly higher emissions, with the Nissan Tsuru model displaying NOx emissions ten times higher than other passenger vehicles.
The presence of outdated vehicle technologies and obsolete emissions control technologies in Mexico has been identified as a key reason for the higher emissions compared to other countries like the United States. For instance, a study found that vehicles in Mexico City emitted HC levels at least twice as high as those in the United States and Canada, despite being certified to similar standards. Another study comparing Los Angeles, Chicago, Mexico City, and Monterrey concluded that the difference in emissions was due to the notable presence of obsolete technology in Mexican cities, as well as the lack of a mandatory inspection and maintenance program in Monterrey.
To address the issue of vehicle emissions, Mexico has implemented several measures. The Mexican government published final emissions standards for engines used in heavy-duty trucks, buses, and complete heavy-duty vehicles, known as NOM-044-SEMARNAT-2017. These standards aim to reduce black carbon emissions by 51% by 2030 and are equivalent to those in North America and the European Union. Additionally, the Mexican Atmospheric Environmental Contingency Plan (AECP) includes restrictions on vehicle use, such as forbidding driving on two days a week, to reduce air pollution.
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Indoor air pollution
Mexico City has long struggled with air pollution. In 1992, the United Nations named it the "most polluted city on the planet". By 2021, it had dropped to the 917th most polluted city in the world, but its concentration of airborne particles still exceeds the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines.
One of the main sources of indoor air pollution in Mexico is the use of organic fuels for cooking and heating. Nearly half the world cooks with solid fuels such as wood, crop residues, agricultural waste, and dried animal dung, with wood being the most commonly used. When used in simple cooking stoves, these fuels emit substantial amounts of toxic pollutants. In households with limited ventilation, exposure to these pollutants can be many times higher than WHO guidelines and national standards.
In Mexico, over 16 million people cook primarily with firewood or charcoal, and many households use them as secondary fuels. The use of gas as the primary fuel is a key reason why urban areas are less polluted. If all rural households used propane (LPG), pollution may decline to 25µg/m3 or less. Improved cookstoves with chimneys can also reduce exposure to toxic pollutants by half, but the average exposure would still be about eight times the recommended limit.
To achieve greater improvements, households need to transition to LPG. Converting all households to LPG would save a further 3,400 lives each year, with annual benefits of nearly 40 billion Pesos. This increase is partly due to the elimination of wood fires, leading to cleaner air in the community.
Other measures to reduce air pollution in Mexico include restricting the use of vehicles, limiting factories' greenhouse gas emissions, closing or moving polluting factories, and expanding public transportation.
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Environmental and health impacts
Mexico City was once labelled the world's most polluted city by the United Nations in 1992. While it has since dropped to 917th place in global city air pollution rankings, the city still faces significant environmental and health impacts due to pollution.
Environmental Impacts
Mexico has experienced significant deforestation due to changes in land use, primarily for the expansion of livestock and agriculture. Around 90% of the changes in land use are registered as illegal. The country has set a goal of achieving zero deforestation by 2030 and plans to tackle the root causes of pollution, such as transport emissions and industrial processes.
Health Impacts
Air pollution in Mexico City has been a concern for residents and health officials for decades. The city's high altitude of over 7,000 feet above sea level results in oxygen levels that are 25% lower than at sea level. This, combined with carbon-based fuels that do not combust completely, has led to dangerous levels of air pollution.
The main pollutants in Mexico City's atmosphere are primary pollutants like carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide, emitted directly from vehicles and industrial processes. Secondary pollutants like ozone, which affects the respiratory, cardiovascular, and central nervous systems, are formed through chemical reactions.
The health impacts of air pollution in Mexico City are significant. Exposure to PM2.5, or inhalable fine particulate matter, can cause coughing, shortness of breath, bronchitis, respiratory infections, and heart problems. Ground-level ozone, which forms during the hot and dry spring season, also poses serious health risks.
The poor are disproportionately affected by air pollution, with lower-income neighbourhoods expressing particular concern about air quality. Informal workers, who generally work for small unregistered companies without fixed salaries, tend to work more on days with high pollution levels and have less ability to make up for lost hours. This results in serious health implications, as shown by increased hospital admissions for respiratory diseases in municipalities with large shares of informal workers.
Overall, air pollution in Mexico City has far-reaching environmental and health consequences, and despite some improvements, it remains a significant challenge for the city.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, pollution in Mexico remains a critical issue, with far-reaching health, environmental, and economic consequences.
The main causes of pollution in Mexico include industrial growth, a sharp increase in population, and the proliferation of vehicles. In addition, the use of biomass fuels for cooking, such as wood and charcoal, significantly contributes to indoor air pollution in Mexico.
Air pollution is linked to various health issues, including asthma, bronchitis, and cancer. It is the eighth-highest cause of death in Mexico, accounting for approximately 33,000 premature deaths annually. Children, the elderly, and poorer groups are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of air pollution.
While Mexico has implemented policies that have successfully reduced pollution over the last several decades, more stringent emissions standards and a transition to non-fossil fuel alternatives are needed. Electric vehicles, the promotion of public transport, renewable energy, and clean stoves can all significantly reduce pollution levels.
