Greta Jimenez
China's pollution problem is a well-known issue, with the country facing various forms of pollution that have emerged following its industrialization, causing widespread environmental and health problems. While London was once one of the most polluted cities in the world during the Industrial Revolution due to coal burning, China's pollution today is likely worse. Commercialized media in China have pointed out that the country's smog problem is very serious, even compared to London's historical pollution levels. Beijing, in particular, has recorded extremely high levels of air pollution, with an average AQI of over 300 and readings of up to 700 at individual recording stations in 2013. Lead poisoning and soil pollution are also significant issues in China, impacting the health of its citizens.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Dominant contributor to London's historic air pollution | Coal burning |
| Reason for increased coal consumption in Great Britain | Economic growth, expanding labour force, improved distribution networks |
| Peak concentrations of SPM in London | 623 micrograms per cubic metre |
| Comparison of London's pollution with a city in China | Shanghai |
| Shanghai's air quality reading | Between "unhealthy for sensitive groups" to "unhealthy" ranges |
| Beijing's yearly average PM2.5 in 2016 | 73 μg/m3 |
| Beijing's highest recorded level of PM2.5 | Nearly 1,000 μg per cubic meter |
| Beijing's average AQI in January 2013 | Over 300 |
| Individual recording stations' reading in Beijing in January 2013 | 700-800 |
| Cause of lead poisoning in China | Pollution from metal smelters and a fast-growing battery industry |
| SO2 emission in China | Exceeded Grade-II standards in 22% of the country's cities |
| China's medical waste expected to be disposed of as of 2022 | 447,000 tonnes |
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What You'll Learn
- Pollution sources: coal burning, metal smelters, battery industry
- Pollution levels: SO2, PM2.5, AQI, SPM
- Health impacts: respiratory issues, cancer, cardiovascular issues
- Environmental impacts: soil pollution, water pollution, solid waste
- Solutions: Flue-gas desulfurization, suspending battery production
Pollution sources: coal burning, metal smelters, battery industry
China's pollution levels have been compared to those of 1800s London, a time when the British city was undergoing rapid industrialization, largely driven by coal burning. During this period, London's air pollution was primarily attributed to the expanding coal industry, which was fuelled by economic growth, an increasing labour force, and improved distribution networks. As a result, national coal consumption in Great Britain rose significantly, leading to increased air pollution.
Similarly, China has been facing significant pollution issues, with coal burning being a major contributor. China burns more coal than any other country and is a dominant player in the global manufacturing of batteries and electric vehicles (EVs). While China is making a rapid pivot towards cleaner alternatives, its current pollution levels are a cause for concern.
One of the key pollution sources in China is coal burning. The country has invested heavily in wind, solar, and electric car manufacturers, providing hundreds of billions of dollars in subsidies. However, this push for clean energy has been accompanied by a continued reliance on coal, with China emitting more climate pollution than the United States and Europe combined. The burning of coal releases carbon dioxide, contributing to global warming and climate change.
Metal smelters also play a significant role in China's pollution levels. Soil pollution caused by heavy metals from smelting sites has adversely impacted soil quality and threatened food security and human health. Nonferrous metal mining and smelting, solid waste weathering, and the release of contaminated water or particles from smelters' stacks have all contributed to environmental contamination.
The battery industry, specifically the production and recycling of EV batteries, is another source of pollution in China. Power batteries contain harmful substances such as heavy metals and electrolytes, which can leak into the soil if not properly recycled or disposed of. The extraction of lithium for batteries has also led to environmental concerns, with lithium mining and processing causing pollution in several Chinese provinces.
While China grapples with these pollution sources, it is important to recognize that the country is also making significant strides in clean energy. The rapid growth of the Chinese EV industry and the increasing demand for battery recycling present both challenges and opportunities for environmental protection. Standardizing battery recycling processes and addressing illegal recycling workshops are crucial steps in mitigating pollution from this sector.
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Pollution levels: SO2, PM2.5, AQI, SPM
While it is challenging to make a direct comparison between the pollution levels in China and 1800s London, it is evident that both regions experienced or are experiencing significant air pollution.
SO2 (Sulphur Dioxide)
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions are a major concern in China, largely due to coal combustion and factory emissions. In 2012, a spokesperson for the China Medical Association warned that air pollution, particularly SO2, posed a significant threat to the nation's health. In 2013, China implemented the Airborne Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, which recognised coal as a key driver of air pollution and placed caps on its consumption. This, along with the adoption of flue-gas desulfurization technology in power plants, contributed to a significant reduction in SO2 emissions. Between 2013 and 2018, SO2 levels dropped by 68%. However, it is important to note that SO2 emissions had been increasing until 2007, and China's economic boom, increase in motor vehicles, and manufacturing outputs continue to contribute to overall air pollution levels.
PM2.5
PM2.5 refers to particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers in size, which includes pollutants such as K+, Ca2+, NO3-, and SO42-. These fine particles can penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream, making them extremely harmful to human health. In 2019, China ranked as the 11th dirtiest country in the world, with PM2.5 concentrations three times above the World Health Organization's (WHO) recommended levels. Beijing, in particular, has struggled with high PM2.5 levels, with readings often exceeding healthy limits. In 2020, Beijing's PM2.5 concentration decreased slightly to 38.7 μg/m3, resulting in an average AQI of nearly 109. However, daily AQI averages can vary greatly, with Beijing experiencing a peak average daily AQI of 262 in 2020, considered very unhealthy by the EPA.
AQI (Air Quality Index)
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a metric used to assess the healthiness of the air in a specific location. AQI values are derived from daily PM2.5 concentration averages calculated from hourly recorded values, typically from the US Embassy in Beijing. China's AQI values often far exceed what the EPA considers satisfactory. For example, in January 2013, Beijing recorded an average AQI of over 300, with individual recording stations measuring up to 700. In 2019, Beijing residents experienced air quality classified as "Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups" for ten months of the year.
SPM (Suspended Particulate Matter)
While specific data on SPM levels in China is limited, it can be compared to the historical context of London. During its rapid industrialisation, London experienced extremely high concentrations of SPM, reaching up to 623 micrograms per cubic metre. This is significantly higher than the levels experienced in recent years in highly polluted cities like New Delhi. While China's SPM levels are not directly quantified, the country's high PM2.5 and AQI values indicate significant air pollution, which includes SPM as a component.
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Health impacts: respiratory issues, cancer, cardiovascular issues
Air pollution in China has had severe health consequences for its citizens. The burning of fossil fuels, coal combustion, and industrial discharges have all contributed to poor air and water quality. A 2007 World Bank report estimated that outdoor air pollution caused 350,000 to 400,000 premature deaths annually in China, while indoor air pollution contributed to an additional 300,000 deaths. The Chinese Ministry of Health has declared cancer as the leading cause of death in the country, with lung cancer being a specific concern. This is due to the high levels of fine particulate matter in the air, which penetrates deep into the lungs and can cause respiratory issues, cancer, and cardiovascular problems.
Respiratory issues are a significant concern in China, with air pollution causing various respiratory diseases. Studies have found high rates of respiratory mortality in Chinese cities, with chronic lower respiratory diseases, influenza, and pneumonia being the leading causes. Fine particulate matter, including PM2.5 and PM10, are major contributors to respiratory issues as they can be inhaled and cause damage to the lungs.
Cardiovascular issues are also a major health impact of air pollution in China. Studies have shown a correlation between air pollution and cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cerebrovascular disease. Fine particulate matter in the air can enter the cardiovascular system, causing heart disease and stroke. The high levels of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and sulfur dioxide in the air from coal combustion contribute to these issues.
The health impacts of air pollution in China are not limited to physical ailments. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. The social and economic consequences of air pollution in China have affected people's quality of life and well-being. For example, the severe water shortages and pollution in China have reduced access to clean water, impacting both physical and social health.
Overall, the air pollution in China has had severe health consequences, including respiratory issues, cancer, and cardiovascular problems. The high levels of fine particulate matter in the air, as well as other pollutants, have contributed to these issues and impacted the overall well-being of Chinese citizens.
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Environmental impacts: soil pollution, water pollution, solid waste
China's pollution is somewhat comparable to London's pollution in the 1800s, particularly in terms of air pollution. London's pollution during this period was primarily caused by coal burning, with national coal consumption increasing rapidly from 20 million tonnes in 1820 to 160 million tonnes in 1900 due to falling coal prices and increased demand. This led to a significant increase in air pollution, with suspended particulate matter (SPM) in London's air doubling over two centuries. China's economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization have also resulted in similar air pollution issues, with inadequate investment in water treatment infrastructure leading to widespread water pollution as well.
Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is a significant environmental issue in China, with 16% of the country's soil reported to be polluted. The ministry found that 82.8% of contaminated samples contained toxic inorganic pollutants, including cadmium, mercury, arsenic, chromium, and lead. This pollution has been attributed to agricultural production and other human activities, which have accumulated over time. China is working on measures to address this issue, including a pilot project to treat heavy metal pollution in Hunan province.
Water Pollution
China's rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization have resulted in widespread water pollution. Over half of China's population consumes drinking water contaminated with animal and human excreta. By the year 2000, the volume of wastewater produced was projected to double from 1990 levels to almost 78 billion tons, indicating a significant impact on water resources.
Solid Waste
China has also faced challenges with solid waste pollution, as evident in the implementation of the PRC Law on the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid Wastes. The 2020 revision of this law imposes joint liability on carriers and importers for the proper return and disposal of solid waste, with increased fines for violations. China has also taken steps to reduce the import of solid wastes, aiming for a complete prohibition on solid waste imports by January 1, 2021. These measures demonstrate China's efforts to address solid waste pollution and improve environmental sustainability.
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Solutions: Flue-gas desulfurization, suspending battery production
China's pollution has been described as worse than London's in the 1800s. While London was one of the most polluted cities during its rapid industrialization in the 1800s, it is argued that China's pollution is more severe due to larger population sizes and the fact that its pollution levels are routine, rather than a one-off occurrence.
Flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) is a technology that can be used to address China's pollution problem. FGD removes sulfur dioxide (SO2) from the exhaust flue gases of fossil-fuel power plants and other sulfur oxide-emitting processes. It has been applied to combustion units firing coal and oil, ranging in size from 5 MW to 1,500 MW. The Chendu power plant in China implemented FGD on a 100 MW scale in 1998.
Another solution is to suspend battery production, as the manufacturing of batteries has a high environmental cost. The environmental impact of battery production stems from the toxic fumes released during the mining process and the water-intensive nature of the activity. For example, in 2016, there were protests in Tibet against a lithium mine's unethical practice of polluting the local ecosystem through toxic chemical leaks. Additionally, the production of lithium in Yichun City, China, was halted due to the presence of toxic pollutants in the main source of residential water.
To reduce pollution, it is crucial to transition to renewable energy sources and address the environmental impact of battery production. This includes exploring recycling processes for batteries, as well as ensuring responsible waste disposal practices.
Furthermore, suspending battery production alone may not be sufficient. It is essential to consider the broader context of economic development and industrial growth. National air pollution trends often follow the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), which suggests that air pollution worsens during industrial growth but eventually declines as development progresses. Therefore, suspending battery production may be a temporary solution, and long-term strategies should focus on sustainable practices and regulatory measures to reduce emissions.
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Frequently asked questions
China's pollution is not comparable to 1800s London. While London was one of the worst-polluted cities at the time, China's major cities, such as Beijing and Shanghai, face far worse air pollution.
The dominant contributor to London's historic air pollution was coal burning. The coal industry in Great Britain expanded rapidly throughout the 18th and 19th centuries due to economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks.
Long-term exposure to pollutants in China can cause respiratory diseases, cancer, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, and lead poisoning. Air pollution is a serious health issue, killing up to seven million people annually.
China's pollution is comparable to other industrialising nations throughout history. The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis suggests that air pollution worsens with industrial growth but eventually declines with increased development. China's pollution levels may be similar to those experienced by high-income nations during their industrialisation.
