Greta Jimenez
Bromoxynil is an organic compound with the formula HOBr2C6H2CN. It is classified as a nitrile herbicide and is sold under many trade names, including Brominal, Nu-Lawn Weeder, Buctril, and Chipco Buctril. It is used as a pesticide and herbicide in Australia, New Zealand, and the USA, with known toxic effects on mammals and endocrine organs. Given its widespread use and potential environmental impact, this paragraph introduces the topic of whether bromoxynil is a marine pollutant and explores the potential risks it poses to aquatic ecosystems.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Use | Herbicide for post-emergence control of annual broadleaved weeds |
| Producers | Bayer CropScience, Nufarm UK Limited |
| Regulation | Included in Annex I of Directive 91/414/EEC on March 1, 2005 |
| Toxicity | Toxic for reproduction category 2, toxic effects on endocrine organs |
| Risk assessment | Peer review conducted by EFSA in 2017 |
| Opinion | Not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of Pacific salmon and steelhead species |
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What You'll Learn
Bromoxynil's toxicity and reproductive effects
Bromoxynil is an organic compound with the formula HOBr2C6H2CN. It is classified as a nitrile herbicide and is sold under many trade names. It is moderately toxic to mammals and is used in Australia, New Zealand, and the USA. The compound works by inhibiting photosynthesis and has a half-life of approximately two weeks in soil.
The toxicity of bromoxynil varies across different species. For instance, in birds, the pheasant appears to be the most sensitive to bromoxynil with an acute oral LD50 of 50 mg/kg, while hens are less sensitive with an LD50 of 240 mg/kg. In an avian reproduction study on mallard ducks, adverse effects included a lower number of eggs laid, fewer live embryos, and regression of the ovary.
In long-term toxicity studies with rats and mice, critical effects included liver toxicity in both species, with mice being the most sensitive. Bromoxynil showed carcinogenic potential in mice, with an increase in liver tumours observed in males. However, it did not act as a carcinogen in long-term rat studies.
Bromoxynil and its esters are currently classified as toxic for reproduction category 2, in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008. Toxic effects on the endocrine organs have been observed, including thyroid toxicity in Fischer F344 rats and effects on the uterus in rats. In reproductive toxicity studies, fertility and overall reproductive performance were not impaired, but further data are needed to fully assess the endocrine potential of bromoxynil and its esters.
The octanoate form of bromoxynil is more toxic to aquatic species than bromoxynil phenol, likely due to its higher lipophilicity leading to faster uptake. This is supported by data for estuarine and marine organisms, such as mysid shrimp and Eastern oysters.
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Bromoxynil's impact on salmonid species
Bromoxynil is a herbicide active substance used for post-emergence control of annual broadleaved weeds on maize and straw cereals. It is considered a toxic substance for reproduction and has been observed to have toxic effects on the endocrine organs.
On June 30, 2021, the National Marine Fisheries Services of the NOAA Fisheries provided their final biological opinion on the potential effects of the pesticide bromoxynil on listed Pacific salmon and steelhead and their habitats. They concluded that the Environmental Protection Agency's registration and authorized use of pesticide products containing bromoxynil are unlikely to jeopardize the continued existence of 28 Pacific salmon and steelhead species.
However, it is important to note that this conclusion is based on the specific context of the EPA's approved product labels and the current status of the reviewed salmonid species within their environmental baseline. The potential cumulative effects of bromoxynil and other substances, as well as the broader impact on a larger range of salmonid species, may reveal a more complex picture.
While bromoxynil has been deemed essential for controlling a serious danger to plant health, its potential endocrine-disrupting properties and toxic effects on reproduction cannot be overlooked. Further studies are necessary to fully understand the impact of bromoxynil on salmonid species and other aquatic life, especially regarding its potential long-term effects and ecological consequences.
In conclusion, while the direct impact of bromoxynil on the reviewed salmonid species may not be severe, its classification as a toxic substance and potential for endocrine disruption warrants further investigation and cautious consideration in terms of its use and regulation.
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The approval process for pesticides in the EU
The European Union (EU) has a detailed, two-tiered procedure for the approval and authorisation of pesticides. The first tier involves the approval of the active substance for use in the EU. The second tier involves the approval of the Plant Protection Product (PPP), which can be applied for once the active substance has been approved.
For the first tier, an applicant (a company or association of producers) must submit a dossier to a Member State (called the Rapporteur Member State) to request permission to put an active substance on the market. Within 12 months, the Rapporteur Member State produces a Draft Assessment Report to check if the substance satisfies the criteria for approval. This report is submitted to the European Commission and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). If additional information is required, the applicant will be given a maximum of 6 months to submit a revised application.
EFSA is responsible for the peer review of risk assessments on active substances and must provide a conclusion on whether the substance satisfies the criteria for approval. The Draft Assessment Report is shared among other Member States and the applicant within 30 days of its receipt by EFSA. EFSA distributes the RAR to the Member States and applicants for comments, conducts a public consultation on the RAR, collates and forwards all comments to the European Commission, and may request additional information from the applicants. EFSA then conducts an expert consultation in areas such as mammalian toxicology, residues, and ecotoxicology.
Once EFSA has concluded that an active substance can be expected to meet the approval criteria, the second tier of the approval process can begin. A company or organisation in possession of a valid authorisation for a PPP can apply for mutual recognition and obtain approval for products with the same uses under similar agricultural conditions. Applications can be made through the Plant Protection Products Application Management System, an online tool that enables industry users to create and submit applications to Member States for evaluation and authorisation.
The EU has issued revised Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) in plants for the pesticides that have ever been used in the world. The responsible authorities of the Member States monitor the determined MRLs of pesticides in food to protect human health and the environment.
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Herbicide alternatives to bromoxynil
Bromoxynil is a herbicide used to control annual broadleaved weeds, especially young seedlings of cereals, ryegrass-seed crops, turf, and non-crop land. It is also used on barley, oats, wheat, flax, and rice, and in grass seed production. It is a nitrile herbicide that works by inhibiting photosynthesis.
There are a variety of alternative herbicides to bromoxynil, including both chemical and non-chemical methods. Here are some detailed examples of each:
Non-chemical alternatives
Non-chemical methods can be effective alternatives to bromoxynil and other herbicides. These methods do not rely on chemical agents to control weeds and can include mechanical, cultural, or biological practices. For example, mechanical weeding, crop rotation, or using natural predators or competitive crops. While these methods may not always have the same efficacy as chemical herbicides, they can be more environmentally friendly and reduce the risk of chemical pollution.
Chemical alternatives
There are also a number of chemical alternatives to bromoxynil that have the same spectrum of weed control and time of application. One example is ioxynil, a commercially available nitrile herbicide with a similar mode of action. Other potential chemical alternatives may include different active substances that have been approved for use in controlling broadleaved weeds. These substances may vary in their effectiveness, with some offering sufficient control and others being less successful.
Overall, while bromoxynil is a widely used herbicide, there are alternative options available, both chemical and non-chemical, that can be utilised depending on the specific circumstances and weed control needs.
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Transportation of marine pollutants
Marine shipping is the most energy-efficient way to transport large volumes of cargo. However, ships that burn hydrocarbon fuels emit air pollutants that degrade air quality, harm human health, and contribute to climate change. To address this issue, organisations like Clear Seas in Canada provide information to governments, industries, and the public to facilitate informed decisions about marine shipping issues.
International regulations also play a crucial role in mitigating marine pollution caused by chemical transportation. The International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, or MARPOL, establishes guidelines for preventing pollution by harmful substances. Its annexes categorise noxious liquid substances based on the hazards they pose to marine resources, human health, and the environment. Additionally, MARPOL Annex III sets standards for packaging, marking, labelling, and documentation to prevent pollution by harmful substances in packaged form.
The International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, developed by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), serves as a uniform international code for transporting dangerous goods by sea. It identifies specific chemicals as marine pollutants and provides regulations for their safe carriage. The IMDG Code is referenced in both SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) and MARPOL.
In the United States, the Department of Transportation (DOT) regulates marine pollutant shipments. While DOT regulations differ from those of IATA and IMDG, they provide flexibility by allowing shippers to classify substances according to the IMDG definition. DOT requires the regulation of marine pollutants only when shipped in bulk packaging or by vessel.
While bromoxynil is recognised as a pesticide, its potential impact on marine life has been assessed by organisations like NOAA Fisheries. In their biological opinion, they concluded that the registration and authorised use of bromoxynil-containing pesticides by the Environmental Protection Agency are unlikely to jeopardise the continued existence of certain Pacific salmon and steelhead species or adversely modify their critical habitat.
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Frequently asked questions
Bromoxynil is an organic compound with the formula HOBr2C6H2CN. It is classified as a nitrile herbicide and is sold under many trade names.
Yes, bromoxynil is moderately toxic to mammals. Lethal doses in mammals range between 60 and 600 milligrams ingested per kilogram, and teratogenic effects have been observed in rats and rabbits above 30 milligrams per kilogram.
Bromoxynil is used as a herbicide to control annual broadleaved weeds. It works by inhibiting photosynthesis. It is used in Australia, New Zealand, and the USA.
Bromoxynil has been detected in drinking water in the Great Plains region of Canada, where it is widely used on cereal grains. However, it is unclear if it is a significant marine pollutant as levels detected were generally lower than other pesticides, and it underwent greater reduction in water treatment.
Bromoxynil and its esters are classified as toxic for reproduction and can have endocrine-disrupting properties. There are also concerns about its potential effects on listed Pacific salmon and steelhead and their habitats.
