Helena Joyce
China's air pollution crisis has had a significant impact on the life expectancy of its citizens, with studies showing that people in northern China live 3.1 years less than those in the south due to higher pollution concentrations. Long-term exposure to air pollution has been linked to reduced life expectancy, with an additional 10 micrograms per cubic meter of particulate matter pollution reducing life expectancy by 0.6 years. China has made efforts to reduce pollution, with a 42.3% decline between 2013 and 2021, but pollution levels still exceed WHO guidelines, and air pollution remains a top threat to life expectancy. The Chinese government has set a target to further reduce PM2.5 concentrations by 10% from 2020 to 2025, with potential gains in life expectancy of over 100 days in the most polluting cities.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Loss of life expectancy due to air pollution | 1.25 years |
| DALY rate per 100,000 attributable to air pollution | 482.3 (Hong Kong) - 1804.5 (Tibet) |
| Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) caused by air pollution | 42.51 million (a 30.2% decrease from 1990) |
| Population exposed to unsafe levels of air pollution | 4.5 billion worldwide |
| Provinces with the highest DALY rates | Xinjiang, Tibet |
| Provinces with the lowest DALY rates | Hong Kong, Shanghai |
| Health risks associated with air pollution | Cardiovascular and respiratory issues, stroke, ischaemic heart disease, COPD, lung cancer |
| Provinces with low mortality rates | Beijing, Hong Kong, Macau, Shanghai, Tianjin, Shejiang |
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What You'll Learn
Northern China's air pollution crisis
Air pollution is a major public health issue in China, with high levels of exposure to both ambient and household air pollution. It is estimated that if the air pollution level in China was below the minimum causing health loss, the average life expectancy would have been 1.25 years greater. Northern China, in particular, has been facing an air pollution crisis.
In the spring of 2023, Northern China experienced multiple rounds of sandstorms. These sandstorms were caused by rising spring temperatures in dusty regions, which led to loosened soil, increasing the likelihood of sandstorms. Climate change, largely driven by fossil fuel combustion, is a contributing factor to the increase in sandstorms. Northern China is also affected by dust storms originating in the deserts of Mongolia, Northern China, and Kazakhstan, which bring about clouds of fine, dry soil particles that contain toxic pollutants.
The burning of fossil fuels, principally coal, is a significant contributor to air pollution in Northern China. Coal accounts for 70% of total energy consumption, and emissions from coal combustion are the major anthropogenic contributors to air pollution in China. The Huai River Policy, established during China's central planning period between 1950 and 1980, provided homes and offices in the North with free coal for winter heating, leading to a dramatic increase in coal consumption and production. The policy was limited to the Northern region due to budget limitations. As a result, Northern China experiences higher levels of air pollution from coal combustion compared to other regions.
To address the air pollution crisis, the Chinese government has implemented stricter regulations and action plans. After record-high air pollution in Northern China in 2012 and 2013, the State Council issued an Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution in September 2013. The plan aimed to reduce PM2.5 levels and coal consumption by closing polluting mills, factories, and smelters and switching to eco-friendly energy sources. While China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution in recent years, it still faces challenges in meeting air quality standards, particularly in Northern industrial hubs such as the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region.
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The impact of PM2.5 pollution
PM2.5 pollution is a major issue in China, causing serious health problems and reduced visibility. It is primarily caused by anthropogenic emissions of reactive gases, aerosols, and aerosol precursors, as well as wind-blown dust, contributing to the worsening air pollution that has altered the Earth's radiation balance and distressed ecosystems.
PM2.5 pollution has had a significant impact on life expectancy in China. Studies have found that long-term exposure to PM2.5 pollution contributes to a substantial loss of life expectancy, with the risk of premature mortality being much higher in highly polluted areas. For example, in Wujiaqu, a highly polluted city in northwestern China, the risk of premature mortality is four times higher than in the cleanest city due to higher PM2.5 concentrations.
The Chinese government has recognized the severity of this issue and has taken comprehensive actions to tackle air pollution. As a result, China has reduced pollution by nearly 40% in five years, adding about two years to the average life expectancy if these reductions are sustained. Beijing, in particular, has been praised by the UN for its successful efforts to improve air quality, although there is criticism that this improvement has come at the expense of surrounding provinces, as many factories were relocated.
To further improve air quality and increase life expectancy, China aims to implement more sustainable development policies and continue its war against pollution. By 2035, China targets a national annual mean PM2.5 concentration of less than 25 μg m−3, and by 2060, with carbon neutrality pledges, the country hopes to reach the WHO Interim Target-4 for annual mean PM2.5. These measures are expected to have a positive impact on public health and the environment.
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China's Huai River policy
The combustion of coal in boilers releases air pollutants, particularly particulate matter that is extremely harmful to human health. Due to budgetary limitations, the policy only provided free coal to northern China, and as a result, indoor heating became much more common in this region.
The Huai River policy has had significant impacts on pollution levels and human health. The policy led to a 55% increase in total suspended particulate (TSP) concentrations in the north compared to the south. This increase in air pollution has had a substantial impact on life expectancy in the region, with an estimated loss of more than 2.5 billion life years for the 500 million residents of northern China during the 1990s. The higher incidence of cardiorespiratory mortality in the north, caused by increased air pollution, has resulted in life expectancies being approximately 5.5 years lower than in the south.
The unique circumstances created by the Huai River policy have provided researchers with a valuable opportunity to study the effects of TSPs on human health. By comparing the health outcomes of populations on either side of the Huai River, researchers have been able to establish a causal link between air pollution and reduced life expectancy. This knowledge can now be applied to other countries, time periods, and settings to inform policies that protect public health and drive economic growth.
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The role of migration
Air pollution has had a significant impact on life expectancy rates in China, with long-term exposure contributing to an enormous loss of life expectancy. It is an important public health concern, with high levels of exposure to both ambient and household air pollution.
The migration decisions of these individuals are influenced by their physical health, with older individuals experiencing more health issues due to pollution. They may also have different trade-offs between the perceived harm from air pollution and economic opportunities. For example, highly educated individuals may be better informed about the potential health risks and have lower migration costs.
The impact of pollution on migration can also affect the local economy. If pollution causes population migration, it can hinder economic transformation and local consumption, which disrupts the domestic economic cycle. Additionally, pollution can influence career changes and job mobility, with negative impacts on the likelihood of career switching. This is due to changes in wage compensation and declines in health status.
Overall, migration plays a role in reducing the negative impact of pollution on life expectancy in China by allowing individuals to move away from polluted areas and potentially improve their health and economic opportunities. However, it is important to note that not everyone has the ability to migrate, and those who remain in polluted areas continue to face the detrimental health effects of pollution.
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China's war against pollution
Air pollution is a significant public health concern in China, with high levels of exposure to both ambient and household air pollution. Studies have shown that long-term exposure to air pollution contributes to a substantial loss of life expectancy in China. For instance, a study by Chen et al. revealed that long-term exposure to air pollution resulted in a loss of 1.25 years in average life expectancy. Another study by Avraham Ebenstein, a lecturer at Hebrew University, found that air pollution cuts three years off lifespans in northern China.
The impact of air pollution on health has been linked to various chronic diseases, including stroke, ischaemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer. The pollution has also been associated with deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory causes in Chinese cities.
In recent years, China has made extensive efforts to control emissions, and pollution from ambient PM2.5 and household burning of solid fuels has decreased markedly. However, air pollution remains an important risk factor, and PM2.5 concentrations still exceed the WHO Air Quality Guideline for the entire population of China.
To address the issue of air pollution and its impact on public health, China has implemented sustainable development policies and conducted studies to inform action at the provincial levels. For example, the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017 analyzed the effect of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across China's provinces from 1990 to 2017. This study estimated the exposure to air pollution and its impact on mortality and life expectancy, providing valuable data for provincial-level decision-making.
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Frequently asked questions
Studies have shown that air pollution has caused a reduction in life expectancy in China. It is estimated that 1.24 million deaths in China in 2017 were attributable to air pollution. The Chinese government has recognized this problem and has taken action to tackle it.
The main causes of air pollution in China are ambient PM2.5 pollution, household air pollution from solid fuels, and ambient ozone pollution. Ambient PM2.5 pollution is caused by the combustion of coal, while household air pollution is mainly due to the use of solid fuels for heating and cooking.
Air pollution has been associated with various chronic diseases in China, including stroke, ischaemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer. It has also been linked to increased mortality rates, particularly in middle-aged and older individuals.
The Chinese government has implemented comprehensive actions to tackle air pollution, including sustainable development policies and emission control measures. As a result, there has been a decrease in air pollution exposure levels and a reduction in mortality attributable to air pollution over the past two decades.
