Helena Joyce
Singapore's air pollution is mainly caused by motor vehicles and industry. However, the country also experiences seasonal haze caused by smoke from forest fires in neighbouring countries, such as Indonesia and Malaysia. This haze has led to increased hospital admissions for respiratory illnesses and has also impacted transportation and public health. In 2015, Singapore's air pollution levels were deemed hazardous, and the country has been ranked as the fifth most polluted country in the world. While Singapore's air quality is generally considered clean, with pollution levels similar to those in Beijing and Mumbai, the country's high population density may contribute to higher average pollution concentrations.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Main sources of air pollution | Motor vehicles and industry |
| Air Quality Index | Pollution Standards Index (PSI) |
| Pollutants measured by PSI | PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) |
| PSI scale | 0 to 300+, from "Good" to "Hazardous" |
| Seasonal air pollution | Haze from forest fires in neighbouring island states, such as Indonesia and Malaysia |
| Health impact | Increased short-term risk to mortality and respiratory illnesses |
| Impact on daily life | Disruption to transportation and increased health costs |
| Comparison to other cities | Similar incidence of adverse health effects as many North American and European cities |
| Global ranking | Fifth most polluted country in the world |
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What You'll Learn
Singapore's air quality is comparable to Beijing and Mumbai
Singapore's air quality is comparable to Beijing's and Mumbai's. Singapore's air quality index is the Pollution Standards Index (PSI), an alternative to the Air Quality Index (AQI) used in many other countries. PSI gives a score for air pollution based on the density of six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. In 2019, Singapore's average PM2.5 concentration was 19 µg/m³, exceeding the World Health Organisation's recommended target of 10 µg/m³. This gave Singapore a 'Moderate' rating, indicating that sensitive individuals should avoid outdoor activity.
Singapore's air pollution primarily comes from traffic and industry, but there is also a seasonal risk posed by haze from forest fires in neighbouring countries like Indonesia and Malaysia. This haze can cause severe health issues, with one haze event in 2015 costing Singapore $1.83 billion due to the impact on residents, transportation, and public health. While Singapore's air quality varies, with some areas close to industrial buildings experiencing higher pollution, the haze can affect the entire island.
Singapore's PSI readings help residents manage their exposure to air pollution. The PSI scale ranges from 0 to 300+, with colours indicating the air quality level from "Good" to "Hazardous". Singapore's AQI in 2025 has been fluctuating between 'Good' and 'Moderate', with some pollutants being a concern for sensitive individuals.
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Haze from forest fires in neighbouring countries
Singapore's air pollution is mainly caused by motor vehicles and industry. However, the country also experiences intermittent haze, which has sometimes made international headlines. This haze is caused by forest fires in neighbouring countries, such as Indonesia and Malaysia. These fires are often started to clear land for agriculture, usually using slash-and-burn practices. In Indonesia, large areas of forest are often cleared for palm oil and pulpwood production, creating huge volumes of toxic smoke. This not only affects air quality in Indonesia and Malaysia but can also be blown to Singapore by southerly winds.
The haze from these forest fires has affected Singapore in 1997, 2013, 2015, and 2019. In 2015, the haze pushed Singapore's air pollution to hazardous levels, costing the country $1.83 billion (USD). The haze caused millions of residents to stay home, disrupted transportation, and increased public health costs for respiratory, eye, and skin conditions. The 2015 haze was particularly severe due to El Niño exacerbating the effects of Indonesia's dry season, fuelling more forest fires.
The haze is an international issue, causing regional political tensions. While efforts have been made to mitigate haze events, challenges remain in implementing these measures, and haze continues to recur. Singapore has passed a cross-border air pollution law in 2014, making those who cause haze both criminally and civilly liable. However, regulatory loopholes make it challenging for authorities to eliminate Indonesia's slash-and-burn land-clearing practices.
The haze from neighbouring forest fires has significant impacts on Singapore's air quality and public health, contributing to respiratory illnesses and other health issues. It also affects regional tourism, industrial production, transportation, and fisheries, resulting in substantial economic costs.
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Singapore's air pollution is primarily from traffic and industry
Singapore's air pollution is primarily caused by traffic and industry. As a city-state and island, Singapore is densely populated, with roadways and industrial buildings in close proximity to residential areas. This means that the average pollution per square foot is relatively high compared to other countries, even if the overall air quality is considered "good" or "moderate".
Motor vehicles are a significant contributor to air pollution in Singapore. The country's Pollution Standards Index (PSI) measures the density of six pollutants, including carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide, which are largely produced by motor vehicles. The close proximity of roadways to living spaces means that residents are exposed to higher levels of these pollutants, which can cause respiratory issues and other health problems.
Industry is another major source of air pollution in Singapore. The country's Source Emission Test Scheme requires industries to monitor their own air emissions to ensure compliance with prescribed standards. However, industrial activities such as waste incineration and the burning of incense can release particulate matter and other pollutants into the air, affecting the health of nearby residents.
While haze events caused by forest fires in neighbouring countries like Indonesia and Malaysia are not a constant occurrence, they can have a significant impact on Singapore's air quality when they do occur. These events can cause hazardous levels of air pollution, leading to increased hospital admissions for respiratory illnesses and other health issues. However, the Singapore government and the National Environment Agency (NEA) actively monitor air pollution levels and provide residents with real-time data and forecasts to help manage their exposure to pollutants.
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The health impacts of air pollution in Singapore
Singapore's air pollution has been shown to pose a significant risk to public health. The country's air quality index is the Pollution Standards Index (PSI), which is based on the density of six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. PM2.5 and PM10 refer to air particles that are often found in dirt, dust, and soot, and are dangerous because they can lodge deep in our lungs.
Singapore's PSI has been linked to an increased short-term risk of mortality. The PSI scale ranges from 0 to 300+, with "'Good' to 'Hazardous'" ratings and a colour-coded scale. In 2019, Singapore's average PM2.5 concentration was 19 µg/m³, exceeding the World Health Organisation's recommended target of 10 µg/m³. This indicates that sensitive individuals should avoid outdoor activities as they may experience respiratory symptoms.
Singapore's main sources of air pollution are from motor vehicles and industry. The country has implemented various schemes to encourage the adoption of cleaner passenger cars and commercial vehicles, as well as the early phase-out of older, more pollutive vehicles. All new vehicles must meet minimum emission standards, and industrial facilities must incorporate pollution control measures to comply with the National Environment Agency's (NEA) air emissions standards.
Despite these efforts, Singapore is susceptible to seasonal haze from forest fires in neighbouring island states, which can cause severe health issues. During haze episodes, individuals may experience increased sneezing, coughing, and eye irritation. The elderly, children, and those with existing heart or lung disease are particularly sensitive to the effects of haze, which can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular issues.
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Singapore's Pollution Standards Index (PSI)
Singapore's air quality index is the Pollution Standards Index (PSI), an alternative to the Air Quality Index (AQI) used in many other countries. PSI is a number used to indicate the level of pollutants in the air. The PSI used in Singapore gives a score for air pollution based on the density of six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2). The National Environment Agency (NEA) provides 24-hour PSI readings with a rolling average for the past 24 hours to help residents manage their exposure to air pollution. The PSI scale ranges from 0 to 300+, from "Good" to "Hazardous", with a colour-coded scale: green, blue, yellow, orange and red.
The PSI was initially based on five air pollutants but since 1 April 2014, it has also included fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Singapore also publishes 1-hr PM2.5 concentrations every hour. The PSI is based on a scale devised by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to provide a way for broadcasts and newspapers to report air quality on a daily basis. The PSI considers the concentrations of these pollutants in the ambient air, which are measured via a network of air monitoring stations located around Singapore.
Singapore, being a city-state and an island, has main sources of air pollution from motor vehicles and industry. However, this is not the source of the infamous and intermittent haze that has at times engulfed the island. Singapore is surrounded by other island states, including Malaysia and Indonesia, which have large areas of rainforest. Large areas of forest are often cleared for agriculture, usually by using slash-and-burn practices, creating huge volumes of toxic smoke that can be blown to Singapore by southerly winds. Transboundary smoke has caused haze of varying severities in Singapore in 1997, 2013, 2015 and 2019. In 2015, Singapore’s air pollution was pushed to hazardous levels from transboundary smoke, which cost Singapore $1.83 billion (an average of $468 per resident).
Studies have shown a link between high PSI levels and an increased short-term risk to mortality. Severe haze events can cause an increase in hospital admissions due to respiratory illnesses, but they are uncommon and all haze events are short-term in nature. Routine haze events can have a minimal impact on air quality, and Singapore’s Ministry of Health advises that residents continue with activities as normal unless the PSI rises above 100. Singapore experiences a similar incidence of adverse health impacts from air pollution as many North American and European cities.
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Frequently asked questions
Air pollution in Singapore is measured using the Pollution Standards Index (PSI), which is an alternative to the Air Quality Index (AQI) used in many other countries. The PSI gives a score based on the density of six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2).
As a city-state and island, Singapore's main sources of air pollution are motor vehicles and industry. However, Singapore also experiences intermittent haze from neighbouring countries, particularly Indonesia, where large-scale forest burning for agriculture creates toxic smoke that blows over to Singapore.
Singapore's air pollution levels have been compared to those of Beijing and Mumbai, and it has been ranked as the fifth most polluted country in the world. Singapore's residents could gain up to 3.8 years of life expectancy if its air quality met the WHO guideline.
Singapore's National Environment Agency (NEA) provides 24-hour PSI readings to help residents manage their exposure to air pollution. During haze events, the Ministry of Health advises residents to continue their activities as normal unless the PSI rises above 100.
