Meghan Hodges
Manila, the capital of the Philippines, is a highly populated city with over 109 million people. The city's air quality has been a significant concern, with pollution levels steadily rising since the COVID-19 lockdown ended in May 2020. The primary sources of pollution in Manila are motor vehicles, which account for 80% of the city's air pollution, and stationary sources such as factories and the open burning of organic matter, contributing the remaining 20%. The poor air quality has severe health implications for residents, with air pollution causing one in eight deaths worldwide, according to the World Health Organization.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Population | 109 million (2020 estimate) |
| Air Quality in December 2020 | Good |
| Air Quality in 2019 | 5th most polluted city in the Philippines |
| PM2.5 reading in 2019 | 18.2 µg/m³ |
| Air Pollution Source | 80% from traffic, 20% from factories and burning of organic matter |
| Air Quality Monitoring in De La Salle University | PM2.5 level of 448 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Pasig City | PM2.5 level of 397 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Ateneo de Manila University | PM2.5 level of 369 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Paranaque | PM2.5 level of 6 to 18 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Muntinlupa | PM2.5 level of 8 to 42 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Almanza, Las Piñas/Parañaque City | PM2.5 level of 7 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Calumpit, Bulacan | PM2.5 level of 132 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Kaimito, Pasig | PM2.5 level of 109 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Nangka, Marikina | PM2.5 level of 101 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Katipunan, Quezon City | PM2.5 level of 79 µg/m³ |
| Air Quality Monitoring in Antipolo, Rizal | PM2.5 level of 78 µg/m³ |
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What You'll Learn
Air pollution from vehicles
Manila, the capital of the Philippines, is notorious for its air pollution, which poses a significant risk to public health and the environment. According to a 2016 report, 80% of Manila's pollution comes from traffic, with the remaining 20% originating from stationary sources such as factories and the open burning of fossil fuels. The city's dense population of approximately 12,600 people per square kilometre, coupled with the high number of vehicles on the roads, contributes to this issue.
The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 is a step towards addressing air pollution, but it requires updates to keep up with the evolving nature of the problem. Transportation is the leading contributor to outdoor air pollution, with the country's most recent national emissions inventory finding that 56% comes from this sector. Jeepneys, the most popular means of public transportation in the Philippines, are a major culprit. These vehicles are typically old, diesel-powered, and lack proper maintenance, resulting in excessive pollution.
The dark-coloured fumes emitted by jeepneys contain harmful pollutants such as black carbon (BC) and nitrogen oxide (NOx). The adverse health effects of air pollution are evident, with high levels of respiratory illnesses among the population. Urine samples from children living on Manila's streets revealed elevated lead levels due to their proximity to vehicle exhaust fumes.
To combat air pollution from vehicles, the government must implement stricter emissions regulations and promote cleaner technologies. This includes adopting electric vehicles, improving public transportation infrastructure, and encouraging a shift away from fossil fuel energy sources. Community initiatives, such as tree-planting programmes, waste management improvements, and the utilisation of renewable energy sources, can also play a crucial role in mitigating pollution levels.
The COVID-19 lockdown provided a glimpse of what Manila could be like with reduced vehicle emissions. Within days, the air cleared, and residents could see the Sierra Madre mountain range on the outskirts of the city, usually obscured by a thick haze. This serves as a reminder that addressing air pollution from vehicles is not just beneficial for public health but also for enhancing the natural environment and the quality of life for Manila's residents.
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Fireworks and celebrations
Fireworks are a traditional part of celebrations in the Philippines, especially during New Year's Eve and New Year's Day. However, fireworks and firecrackers have been found to aggravate air pollution in Manila, which is already one of the most polluted cities in the Philippines. During celebrations, fireworks release harmful gases and pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and water-soluble ions and metals like manganese and aluminium. These emissions contribute to the city's already poor air quality, with PM2.5 levels frequently surpassing safe limits and posing serious health risks to residents, especially vulnerable groups.
The Manila Observatory has been monitoring air quality through PM2.5 concentrations during annual New Year celebrations for over two decades. Data shows that fireworks significantly impact air pollution levels, with PM2.5 concentrations spiking within an hour of midnight and persisting for several hours due to low wind speeds and the absence of precipitation. The highest PM2.5 concentrations during New Year's celebrations in 2024 were observed in San Jose Del Monte, Bulacan; Nangka, Marikina City; and Antipolo, Rizal.
To address the issue of firework-related pollution and injuries, the local government has implemented bans and regulations on the use of fireworks and firecrackers. Executive Order No. 28 regulates the use of fireworks, resulting in an overall decline in firework-related incidents and injuries. Resolution 19, issued in 2021, urged a ban on firecrackers to control public gatherings during the pandemic, which lowered firecracker-related injuries by 85% compared to the previous year.
Despite these efforts, the use of fireworks during celebrations continues to be a concern. In 2025, the Department of Health (DOH) reported 843 firework-related acute injuries, reflecting a 38% increase from the previous year. Additionally, the festive tradition of revving motorcycle or car engines near midnight during New Year's celebrations also contributes to increased pollution levels. As a result, people in Manila are advised to take precautions, such as wearing appropriate personal protective equipment or masks, to avoid inhaling harmful particle pollution during and after celebrations.
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Nitrogen dioxide and PM2.5 levels
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and PM2.5 particulate matter are the two main airborne pollutants in Manila's air. These pollutants are produced by the emissions from burning fossil fuels. According to a report, the levels of these two pollutants dropped dramatically during the lockdown period in 2020. However, as the city relaxed the lockdown restrictions and entered a state of general community quarantine, the smog started to return to the skies above Manila.
The air quality in Manila, the capital city of the Philippines, is a growing concern. The city's air pollution has been linked to respiratory and cardiovascular health issues among its residents. Manila's air quality index (AQI) is currently moderate, with a PM2.5 concentration that is 2.5 times higher than the World Health Organization's annual guideline value. The PM2.5 concentration in December 2020 was recorded at 6.1 µg/m³, which was considered "good" by the World Health Organization. However, the 2019 average for Metro Manila was 18.2 US AQI, ranking it as the fifth most polluted city in the Philippines.
The high levels of PM2.5 in Manila's air have severe health implications. Traffic enforcers in Metro Manila, who are constantly exposed to high PM2.5 concentrations, are 1.24 times more likely to develop chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Studies have also shown that populations exposed to poor air quality during the COVID-19 pandemic had a higher mortality risk than those living in areas with cleaner air. The negative impact of air pollution costs the Philippines an estimated US$87 billion annually in healthcare, welfare, and economic losses.
The primary sources of air pollution in Manila are human activities, including vehicle emissions and industrial emissions from factories and power plants. The city's geography, with its enclosed valleys, also contributes to the problem by trapping pollutants and preventing their dispersion. Weather conditions, such as temperature inversions and low wind speeds, can further exacerbate the issue. Additionally, the practice of burning waste, especially in informal settlements and landfills, releases harmful pollutants into the air.
To address the air pollution in Manila, it is essential to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels and transition to clean and sustainable energy sources. Investing in the expansion of the overhead rail system to reduce the number of vehicles on the roads can also help improve air quality. Prioritizing sustainable fuels and green transportation systems, and enhancing micro-mobility around local areas are recommended recovery options to maintain air pollution at manageable levels.
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Lockdown and air quality
Manila, the capital of the Philippines, has long suffered from poor air quality, with 98% of the population affected by air pollution and over 4000 deaths per year attributed to it. The COVID-19 pandemic, however, brought a rare period of respite for the city's atmosphere. From March 16, 2020, to May 15, 2020, the Philippines was under a countrywide lockdown, with restrictions extended in Metro Manila and some parts of Central Luzon until May 31, 2020.
During this time, the air pollution level in Metro Manila drastically decreased. Tropospheric nitrogen oxide (NO2) dropped by approximately 52% compared to 2019 levels, and the city registered the lowest PM 2.5 air pollution levels during the first 30 days of the lockdown, with an average of 11.59 ug/m3. This was a significant improvement from the previous year, when PM2.5 concentrations averaged 17.6 ug/m3, exceeding the World Health Organization's (WHO) safety limit of 10 ug/m3.
The lockdown measures, including travel restrictions and the closure of businesses, played a key role in this improvement. With road transport curbed and personal mobility restricted, concentrations of PM2.5 dropped to a third of their normal levels in some parts of the city. The reduction in atmospheric aerosols was also evident in satellite data, which showed a lower Atmospheric Optical Depth (AOD) value during the lockdown period compared to the same time in 2018 and 2019.
While the lockdown provided a temporary improvement in air quality, experts warned that pollution levels were likely to increase once the restrictions were lifted. The challenge, according to lawmaker Loren Legarda, was to find ways to sustain the improved air quality and address the effects of burning fossil fuels. Short-term lockdowns of 3-5 days have been suggested as a possible measure to control air pollution, but the economic impact of such restrictions must also be carefully considered.
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Health risks of air pollution
Air pollution is defined as the presence of one or more contaminants in the atmosphere, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour, in quantities and durations that can be harmful to human health. The main pathway of exposure from air pollution is through the respiratory tract, but almost every organ in the body can be impacted. Some pollutants are small enough to penetrate the bloodstream via the lungs and circulate throughout the entire body, leading to systemic inflammation and carcinogenicity.
There is a growing body of evidence linking air pollution exposure with an increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as low birth weight and small gestational age. Air pollution is also associated with other cancers, diabetes, cognitive impairment, and neurological diseases. The children, elderly, pregnant women, and people living with chronic conditions are more susceptible to air pollution-related diseases.
Short-term exposure to higher levels of outdoor air pollution is associated with reduced lung function, asthma, cardiac problems, emergency department visits, and hospital admissions. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter increases a person's risk of diseases with a longer onset, such as stroke, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cancer. Fine particulate matter can impair blood vessel function and speed up calcification in arteries.
Research has shown that people of colour are more likely to be exposed to air pollution and to suffer harm to their health as a result. This is due in part to the long history of systemic racism in the United States, including practices such as redlining and institutionalized residential segregation, which have impaired the ability of many people of colour to build wealth and limited their mobility. People of colour are also more likely to be living with one or more chronic conditions that make them more susceptible to the health impacts of air pollution, including asthma and diabetes.
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Frequently asked questions
In 2019, Manila was the 5th most polluted city in the Philippines. The city's air quality is largely affected by its heavy traffic, with 80% of the country's air pollution coming from motor vehicles.
The main cause of Manila's air pollution is the high volume of traffic on the roads. The city's jeepneys, or buses, are typically old and unsafe, and often run on diesel fuel. Manila also has a limited rail system, with only 3 rapid transit lines, which contributes to the high number of vehicles on the roads.
Local authorities in Metro Manila currently operate 13 air quality control stations, with plans to introduce more. The government has also implemented policies and campaigns to restrict the use of firecrackers during New Year celebrations, which have been successful in reducing PM2.5 concentrations.
