Kiera Jefferson
Water pollution is a pressing issue in India, with untreated sewage, agricultural runoff, and industrial waste contaminating rivers, lakes, and groundwater sources. The problem is exacerbated by the lack of adequate sewage treatment infrastructure and maintenance, leading to insufficient treatment capacity. This has resulted in high levels of water pollution, with many rivers and water bodies unfit for consumption and contributing to waterborne diseases, health issues, and economic stagnation. India's growing urbanization and industrialization further stress the water systems, and the country faces the challenge of providing safe drinking water to its vast and growing population. Efforts are being made to improve water treatment and reuse, but the crisis demands long-term commitment and comprehensive solutions that address sanitation, conservation, and sustainable water management practices.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Average annual precipitation | 4000 billion cubic metres |
| Available water resources | 1122 billion cubic metres |
| Major cities' sewage production | 38,354 million litres per day (MLD) |
| Urban sewage treatment capacity | 11,786 MLD |
| Waterborne diseases | 38 million Indians affected annually |
| Water pollution health costs | $6.7-8.7 billion per year |
| Total environmental degradation cost | $80 billion per year |
| Surface water unfit for consumption | 70% |
| Wastewater entering water bodies | 40 million litres per day |
| Polluted river stretches | 311 |
| States with most polluted river stretches | Maharashtra (55), Madhya Pradesh (19) |
| Groundwater quality districts above BIS limits | 59 out of 632 |
| Most polluted location | Bagalkot, Karnataka |
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What You'll Learn
Sewage discharge from cities, towns and villages
Inadequate waste disposal infrastructure has failed to keep up with urban expansion, leaving India to 'drown in its excreta'. Inequity between rich and poor areas is also rife, with high-income zones having access to most of the available amenities. Only 5% of piped water reaches slum areas in 42 cities and towns, including New Delhi. As freshwater sources dry up, water is being pumped across great distances, from lakes and rivers into the cities.
Untreated sewage flowing into water bodies has almost doubled from around 12,000 MLD to 24,000 MLD in Class I and II towns. There are 302 Class I cities and 467 Class II towns with no sewage treatment facilities. Overall, this means that just about 12% of sewage generated in these towns and cities meets the required standards.
The Indian government has recognised the issue and is taking steps to address it. Approximately 815 sewage treatment plants (STPs) are under development or have been planned in the last six years, increasing the percentage of urban sewage treated from 37% in 2015 to 50% in 2021. The government has also encouraged the reuse or recycling of treated wastewater in agriculture or industrial purposes to reduce the strain on groundwater resources.
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Poor government-owned sewage treatment plants
Water pollution is a severe issue in India, severely limiting the amount of water available for consumers, agriculture, and industry. Sewage from cities, towns, and villages is the predominant cause of this pollution, with 93% of sewage ending up in water bodies without treatment. This untreated sewage causes agricultural contamination, environmental degradation, and a host of diseases, including diarrhea, which kills 350,000 Indian children annually.
While India's largest cities have centralized sewage systems, the majority of government-owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time due to improper design, poor maintenance, lack of reliable electricity supply, absentee employees, and poor management. This results in waste accumulating in urban areas, causing unhygienic conditions and releasing pollutants that leach into surface and groundwater.
The ineffectiveness of these government-owned sewage treatment plants is exacerbated by the gap between the amount of sewage generated and the treatment capacity of the plants. Major cities in India produce 38,354 million litres per day (MLD) of sewage, but the urban sewage treatment capacity is only 11,786 MLD. This leads to severely polluted rivers and further exacerbates the water pollution problem.
To address this issue, organizations like the Consortium for Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System Dissemination Society (CDD) are developing and promoting technologies for decentralized wastewater management. CDD's Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System (DEWATS) is designed to work in areas with unreliable electricity and limited skilled manpower. By using natural bacteria, plants, and gravity, DEWATS offers a simpler, more affordable, and effective solution for treating wastewater.
Additionally, the Indian government is supporting states through its Scheme of National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) to arrest sewerage and effluents in cities and protect water resources. This includes various initiatives such as intercepting and diverting sewerage, laying new sewerage systems, constructing new sewage treatment plants, and improving sanitation facilities.
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Agrochemicals and bioaccumulation
India's agrochemical market is one of its top 12 industries, with the country aiming to achieve global leadership in this sector. The Indian government has recognised the industry's growth, which is currently at 8% to 10% and is projected to continue through 2025. The agrochemical industry in India is valued at $2.8 billion to $3 billion and is growing at a rate of 10% to 14% per year. This growth is driven by the country's need to meet the food demands of its increasing population, as well as the challenges faced by China, which previously dominated the market.
Agrochemicals are synthetic and commercially produced chemicals used in agriculture to enhance farming practices and regulate ecosystems. They include pesticides, which are used to control pests, weeds, and diseases in plants, animals, and humans. India's growers have traditionally had a low consumption of agrochemicals, but this is changing as farmers move from treatment-based practices to prevention. This shift is supported by the Indian government, which has established a network of 729 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (farm science centres) to provide growers with improved seed varieties and crop management techniques.
The intensive agricultural practices in India have led to the increased use of agrochemicals, particularly pesticides, to boost productivity. This has resulted in the contamination of the environment, with pesticides detected in soil, surface water, and groundwater. Despite bans on certain pesticides, such as organochlorides, organophosphates, and synthetic pyrethroids, they are often found exceeding WHO and BIS safety limits. These pesticides show bioaccumulation, persisting in the environment and accumulating in the food chain, leading to potential risks to human health and ecological integrity. Studies have found a correlation between areas with heavy agrochemical use and higher cancer rates, with specific impacts on childhood cancer and adverse effects on infants through breast milk.
Bioaccumulation is an active process where living organisms metabolise pollutants, leading to their accumulation in the body. This can result in biomagnification, where toxins concentrate as they move up the food chain. Organochlorine pesticides, which contribute to 40% of pesticides used in India, are highly bioaccumulative and pose significant ecological risks. Examples of these pesticides include DDT, HCH, endosulfan, malathion, chlorpyrifos, and cypermethrin. The residues of these pesticides have been detected across various Indian states, demonstrating their persistence and ability to bioaccumulate in the environment and food chain.
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Water scarcity and falling groundwater levels
Agriculture, employing around 44% of India's workforce, is a major contributor to water scarcity and groundwater depletion. Up to 80% of India's groundwater is used for irrigation, and excessive extraction has led to declining groundwater levels. The Indian Agriculture Institute has promoted drip irrigation technology to improve water efficiency, and this method has seen increased adoption over the years. However, the government's lack of regulation on groundwater extraction and subsidies for electric pumps have contributed to a pattern of excessive water use.
Groundwater levels across India are falling at an alarming rate. According to the IWT 2.0, 54% of 4,000 wells showed a decline over seven years, with 16% dropping by more than 1 meter per year. Cities like Chennai, Bangalore, and New Delhi have faced acute water shortages, and the situation is particularly dire in arid regions that depend heavily on groundwater. The World Bank has supported the government in addressing water scarcity, with projects like the Uttarakhand Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project, benefiting over 20 million people.
The pollution of surface and groundwater sources further exacerbates water scarcity. Sewage discharge from cities, towns, and villages is the primary cause, with major cities producing 38,354 million litres of sewage daily, far exceeding treatment capacity. Agrochemicals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) also contaminate water bodies, posing health risks as they are potential carcinogens and mutagens. The India Water Tool was designed to help stakeholders assess water risks and address the damage to water supplies. Additionally, the Atal Bhujal Yojana, a community-led groundwater management program, aims to improve rural livelihoods in states with high groundwater depletion.
In conclusion, India faces severe water scarcity and declining groundwater levels due to a combination of excessive extraction, particularly for agriculture, pollution, and inadequate infrastructure. These issues threaten the health and livelihoods of millions and require urgent attention and sustainable solutions.
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Slums and the absence of pipe planning
India's water crisis is a complex issue with many contributing factors, including the country's rapid urbanization and industrialization. The combination of demographic, social, economic, and political factors has led to the formation and expansion of slums, which often lack access to basic services such as water and sanitation.
Slums, by nature, are characterized by substandard housing structures and insecure land tenure, which presents challenges for residents seeking to upgrade their living environments. The absence of secure land tenure makes it difficult for governments to implement citywide infrastructure development, including the layout of electrical and sewer pipes. This is particularly relevant in India, where the rapid rural-to-urban migration has led to the growth of slums in major cities.
In Mumbai, for example, the rules governing the provision of piped municipal water supply have had disastrous consequences for residents of slums. Until the 1990s, the Mumbai water department provided water to anyone who paid for it. However, a shift occurred where access to municipal water became linked to eligibility for inclusion in slum rehabilitation housing schemes. This change criminalized water access and forced residents and municipal staff into a legally ambiguous terrain, with residents resorting to unauthorized suction pumps and other piecemeal interventions to access water.
The situation in Mumbai highlights the complex interplay between water access, infrastructure planning, and social equity. Senior water engineers and organizations such as Pani Haq Samiti have urged the government to delink water supply from the legality of structures, and in 2014, the Bombay High Court ruled that the state cannot deny water supply to citizens based on their residence in illegally erected structures. This ruling is a step towards ensuring that all residents have access to this basic necessity, regardless of their housing status.
However, the issue of pipe planning in slums extends beyond legal access to water. Slum areas often lack access to improved water sources and sanitation facilities, which can have significant health consequences for residents. Diarrhea, for instance, is a prevalent issue among children in some Indian slums, and the lack of reliable data on health issues in these areas can further hinder the allocation of healthcare resources. The absence of proper pipe planning and sanitation infrastructure in slums contributes to the broader issue of water pollution in India, as sewage discharged from cities and towns is a predominant cause of water pollution in the country.
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Frequently asked questions
It is estimated that 70% of surface water in India is unfit for consumption.
The largest source of water pollution in India is untreated sewage. Other sources include agricultural runoff, unregulated small-scale industry, and pesticides.
Water pollution in India has several detrimental effects on both the environment and public health. Around 38 million Indians suffer from waterborne diseases like typhoid, cholera, and hepatitis every year. It is estimated that the health costs relating to water pollution are around $6.7-8.7 billion per year.
The Indian government has taken several steps to improve water quality, including installing thousands of reverse osmosis systems and solar electrolytic defluoridation plants. Local startups and water companies are also contributing to the effort. Additionally, tools like the India Water Tool help evaluate India's water risks and identify areas for improvement.
Decision-makers need reliable, representative, and comprehensive data to set up effective interventions to improve water quality. There is also a need for investment in sewage treatment plants and electricity infrastructure development to increase India's water treatment capacity.
