Greta Jimenez
Singapore's air quality index is the Pollution Standards Index (PSI), which provides residents with a 24-hour PSI reading and a 1-hour PM2.5 reading. The PSI scale ranges from 0 to 300+, from Good to Hazardous, with a colour-coded scale. Singapore's air pollution is primarily caused by traffic and industry, with additional seasonal risks posed by haze from forest fires in neighbouring countries. The country has also faced environmental issues such as water pollution and deforestation, with more than 95% of its vegetation cleared since 1819 due to urbanization and industrialization.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Carbon dioxide emissions | 65.8 metric tons in 1996 |
| Carbon dioxide emissions sources | Coal, oil, gas, cement production, gas flaring |
| Other greenhouse gas emissions | Methane, nitrous oxide, F-gases |
| Air pollutants | PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide |
| Air pollution sources | Traffic, industry, haze from forest fires in neighbouring islands, transboundary smoke, second-hand smoke |
| Water pollution sources | Industrial facilities, oil from trading vessels |
| Deforestation | 95% of vegetation cleared since 1819, 90% of forests lost since 1980 |
| Loss of biodiversity | 61 of 91 original bird species lost, 67% of birds lost since 1980, 40% of mammals lost since 1980, 5% of amphibians and reptiles lost since 1980 |
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What You'll Learn
Singapore's air pollution
In 2019, Singapore's average PM2.5 concentration was 19 µg/m³, exceeding the World Health Organisation's recommended target of 10 µg/m³. This gave Singapore a 'Moderate' rating in the US Air Quality Index system, indicating that sensitive individuals should avoid outdoor activity. Singapore ranked 52nd out of 98 countries for air pollution levels based on PM2.5 levels and 44th out of 85 capital cities. Within Southeast Asia, Singapore had the second-best air quality after the Philippines.
Singapore's PSI readings typically fall within the ''Good' to 'Moderate' range. However, the country has experienced hazardous air pollution levels due to transboundary smoke from forest fires in neighbouring countries, such as Indonesia. These haze events can lead to increased hospital admissions for respiratory illnesses and significant economic costs.
Singapore's National Environment Agency (NEA) closely monitors air pollution and provides residents with real-time PSI and PM2.5 readings to help them manage their exposure. The NEA has also introduced "no-smoking zones" in busy public areas to reduce the health impacts of second-hand smoke, although critics argue that this has a lesser impact on overall air quality compared to industrial and traffic pollution.
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Water pollution
Singapore has faced challenges in securing a sustainable water supply, including historical water pollution. The country has a small land area, and much of its urban development is near or within water catchment areas. This means that human activities can easily produce pollutants that are carried into reservoirs via the drainage system. Urbanisation has also made waterways and reservoirs more accessible, exposing them to littering.
To combat water pollution, Singapore has implemented the Four National Taps strategy, which includes four techniques to sustain and recycle water: water plants, reservoirs, water importation, and desalination.
Under the Four National Taps strategy, Singapore has developed NEWater, a form of high-grade reclaimed water. NEWater is produced through a three-step treatment process of microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and disinfection, using advanced membrane technologies. It is safe for drinking and has passed over 150,000 scientific tests. NEWater currently supplies up to 40% of Singapore's water needs and is expected to meet 55% of future water demands by 2060.
Singapore also imports water from Johor under a 1962 agreement, which allows it to draw up to 250 million gallons of raw water daily from the Johor River. In exchange, Singapore provides treated water to Johor, up to 2% of the imported amount.
Desalination is another important strategy for Singapore, given its island location. While desalination is energy-intensive, Singapore is investing in research to reduce energy consumption, including through electrodeionisation and biomimicry.
To ensure water quality, the National Environment Agency (NEA) conducts regular monitoring of inland water bodies and coastal areas. The NEA collects and tests water samples weekly at recreational beaches to ensure they meet the recreational water quality guidelines adopted from the World Health Organization. Singapore has also implemented Project Neptune, which enables real-time monitoring of coastal water quality.
Overall, Singapore has made significant strides in managing water pollution and securing a sustainable water supply, with 100% of the population having access to safely managed drinking water and sanitation services.
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Air quality forecast
Singapore's air quality is closely monitored by the National Environment Agency (NEA), which provides residents with a 24-hour PSI reading and a 1-hour PM2.5 reading. These readings act as a Singapore air quality forecast, allowing residents to make informed decisions about their activities and manage their exposure to air pollutants.
The Singapore air quality index is the Pollution Standards Index (PSI), which is an alternative to the Air Quality Index (AQI) used in many other countries. The PSI gives a score for air pollution based on the density of six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2). The PSI scale ranges from 0 to 300+, from "Good" to "Hazardous", with a colour-coded scale: green, blue, yellow, orange, and red.
Singapore's air quality can be affected by transboundary smoke, which has caused haze events of varying severities in 1997, 2013, 2015, and 2019. In 2015, Singapore's air pollution reached hazardous levels due to transboundary smoke, costing the country $1.83 billion (USD). However, not all instances of poor visibility are due to transboundary smoke; high volumes of water vapour in the air can also cause poor visibility without necessarily impacting air quality.
In addition to the NEA, organisations such as AccuWeather and AQICN also provide real-time air quality data and forecasts for Singapore. These organisations utilise data from sources such as Plume Labs and the NEA to provide information to the public.
Overall, Singapore's air quality is generally acceptable for most individuals, but sensitive groups may experience symptoms from long-term exposure. It is important for residents to stay informed about the air quality and take necessary precautions to manage their exposure to air pollutants.
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Carbon dioxide emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are a significant contributor to climate change, and Singapore has been working to reduce its carbon footprint. The majority of CO2 emissions come from the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, primarily for power generation and industrial processes.
In 2022, Singapore's fossil CO2 emissions were 53,439,690 tons, a decrease of 2.96% from the previous year. On a per capita basis, Singapore's CO2 emissions were 9.46 tons per person in 2022, a decrease of 4.7% from 2021. Power generation accounts for about 40% of Singapore's carbon emissions, and the country has been heavily reliant on imported natural gas.
To reduce its carbon emissions, Singapore has been exploring alternative energy sources and low-carbon technologies. The country has set ambitious targets for solar energy deployment and is studying emerging technologies such as hydrogen, carbon capture utilization, and storage (CCUS), and advanced geothermal systems. Singapore has also started importing renewable hydropower from the Lao People's Democratic Republic and small-scale trial imports of electricity from Malaysia and Indonesia.
Energy intensity and carbon intensity are important metrics for monitoring Singapore's progress in reducing emissions. Energy intensity measures how efficiently a country uses energy to produce economic output, while carbon intensity measures the amount of CO2 emitted per unit of energy. Singapore has made efforts to improve the energy and carbon efficiency of natural gas generation units and plans to continue scaling up the deployment of low-carbon alternatives as they become techno-economically viable.
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Deforestation
Singapore has been ranked as the "worst environmental offender among 179 countries" by a report from the National University of Singapore. The country's rapid development into an urban nation has neglected the natural environment.
Singapore has one of the world's biggest deforestation footprints per capita. A study by Nguyen Tien Hoang and Keeichiro Kanemoto found that Singapore's deforestation footprint extends beyond its borders, impacting countries throughout Southeast Asia, including Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak, as well as some regions in eastern Madagascar and the Petén Basin of northern Guatemala.
Historically, Singapore's development as a trading centre for the Malayan Straits by its British founder, Sir Stamford Raffles, led to rapid deforestation. As the population grew, cash crops like gambier and pepper, which thrived in virgin soil, caused plots of land to be exhausted within 15-20 years, leading to continuous forest clearance.
Today, Singapore continues to face pressure on its forests due to urban development. The country could deforest an area larger than its nature reserves and parks combined to fulfil its urban ambitions, according to new research. This includes the planned conversion of 7,331 hectares of secondary forest, previously cleared and regenerated forestland, mainly for public housing and infrastructure projects. The loss of secondary forests not only impacts the island's biodiversity but also contributes to the urban heat island effect, increasing temperatures, energy costs, air pollution levels, and heat-related health risks.
However, there are efforts to balance development and conservation. The Singaporean government has established nature corridors and conserved forested areas surrounding nature reserves as nature parks. They have also committed to safeguarding existing green spaces and creating new ones. Nevertheless, there is a growing outcry over deforestation, with incidents like the premature clearance of a piece of woodland by a developer sparking public and environmentalist concern.
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Frequently asked questions
Singapore's air quality is closely monitored by the National Environment Agency (NEA) using the Pollution Standards Index (PSI). The PSI gives a score based on the density of six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2). In 2019, the PSI remained in the 'Good' and 'Moderate' range for most of the year. However, Singapore has experienced periods of hazardous air quality due to transboundary smoke and haze from forest fires in neighbouring countries.
Air pollution in Singapore is mainly caused by traffic and industrial activities. Vehicles for transport are the biggest contributors to air pollution, despite the country's strict regulations. Industrial facilities and oil from trading vessels also pollute the water in Singapore.
Singapore's National Environment Agency (NEA) uses the Pollution Standards Index (PSI) to measure air pollution. The PSI provides a score based on the density of six common air pollutants. The NEA provides 24-hour PSI readings and 1-hour PM2.5 readings to help residents manage their exposure to air pollutants.
Singapore has introduced "no smoking zones" in busy public areas to reduce the health impacts of second-hand smoke. While critics argue that second-hand smoke is a lesser issue compared to industrial and traffic pollution, these measures are still important for public health. The government also established the Singapore Green Plan in 1992 to address environmental issues.
Singapore faces issues such as water pollution and deforestation. With limited water resources, water quality is carefully regulated, but industrial facilities and oil from trading vessels pollute the water. Since 1980, Singapore has lost 90% of its forests, 67% of its bird species, 40% of its mammals, and 5% of its amphibians and reptiles due to urbanization and industrialization.
