China's Pollution Problem: A Global Concern

China is the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases, with a heavy reliance on coal power and the burning of fossil fuels to support its industrial processes. It emitted 27% of the world's greenhouse gases in 2019, according to research by the Rhodium Group, and its emissions have more than tripled over the previous three decades. China's pollution problem has a significant impact on the health of its citizens, with reports estimating that hundreds of thousands of people die prematurely each year due to outdoor and indoor air pollution. The country has also faced challenges with electronic waste, plastic pollution, and water contamination.

China's carbon dioxide emissions

The country's emissions mainly come from burning fossil fuels for industrial processes like paper and steel production, and from coal, oil, gas, cement production, and gas flaring. China's emissions have historically risen with its increasing demand for electricity, but this trend seems to be reversing. In 2025, China's emissions showed a slight decline of 1% over the previous year, with clean power generation causing a 1.6% drop in carbon dioxide emissions in the first quarter. This decline is attributed to the growth of renewables, such as wind and solar power, which have helped reduce emissions from the power sector.

However, China still faces challenges in reducing emissions. The use of coal as a feedstock in the chemical industry has increased, and natural gas consumption for non-electricity applications has also risen. Additionally, the country's new electricity pricing policy for renewable energy and the impact of the tariff war with the US may influence emissions in the near term.

China has been investing heavily in renewable energy, with more capacity than the next 13 countries combined. This includes a focus on green hydrogen, energy storage, "virtual power plants," and industrial decarbonization based on hydrogen. While this has contributed to the recent decline in emissions, it has not yet been enough to offset the rise in fossil fuel use.

Meeting the 2030 emissions targets under the Paris Agreement will require a significant effort, and the success will depend on the policies outlined in China's next five-year plan.

China's plastic waste

China's plastic pollution is evident and largely attributed to the fact that the country is the world's biggest producer, consumer, and exporter of plastics. In 2020, China produced about 60 million tonnes of plastic waste, of which only 16 million tonnes were recycled. On average, only about 17% of the plastic used in China is recycled. China's large population, which is growing by 0.5% annually, contributes to the high levels of plastic waste in the country.

China has implemented policies to reduce plastic waste, such as banning free shopping and carrier bags. A 2016 survey found that the number of plastic bags in supermarkets and shopping malls had reduced by more than two-thirds due to this ban. In 2008, China also banned all supermarkets, department stores, and shops from giving out free plastic bags, encouraging the use of cloth bags. The production, sale, and use of ultra-thin plastic bags have also been banned.

China's plastic pollution has severe environmental impacts, with the Yangtze River, the longest river in Asia, being linked to global marine plastic pollution. The river has been reported to be responsible for more than half of all marine plastic pollution, contributing to monumental and possibly irreversible environmental damage.

Air pollution and health

Air pollution is a major issue in China, causing severe health issues for its citizens. The problem has arisen as a result of rapid economic and social development, industrialization, and immense population growth. China's air quality has been affected by various forms of pollution, including desertification, soil pollution, water pollution, and air pollution.

The health effects of air pollution in China have been widely studied. Air pollution has been linked to an increased risk of stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and respiratory infections. Fine particles in the air, such as PM2.5, penetrate deep into the lungs and cardiovascular system, causing adverse health effects. According to the Global Burden of Disease study, ambient PM2.5 pollution was responsible for approximately 1.4 million premature deaths in China in 2019. The Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning estimated in an internal report that 300,000 people die each year from ambient air pollution, mainly from heart disease and lung cancer. Other reports and studies have estimated even higher numbers of annual premature deaths attributable to outdoor air pollution.

The Chinese government has recognized the severity of the problem and has implemented several strategies to combat regional air pollution. In 2013, an anti-pollution campaign was launched, focusing on controlling PM2.5 levels. As a result, the average PM2.5 concentration dropped by 50% from 2013 to 2019. China has continued to make progress in improving air quality, especially during the Covid era, when many businesses switched from coal to natural gas, afforestation measures were implemented, and quarantines further reduced pollution. By 2022, the average annual concentration of PM2.5 in 339 major Chinese cities fell to 29 μg/m³, and the number of days with good air quality increased.

Despite these improvements, air pollution remains a significant issue in China, affecting public health, the economy, and people's quality of life. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), China's air pollution levels still exceed the recommended guideline of 5 μg/m³. The high levels of pollution are reducing the average life expectancy of Chinese citizens. If pollution levels are sustained or further reduced to meet WHO guidelines, China could see an increase in average life expectancy.

Overall, air pollution in China has had a significant impact on the health of its citizens, contributing to premature deaths and various health issues. The Chinese government's efforts to combat pollution have shown progress, but continued commitment is necessary to ensure sustained improvements in air quality and public health.

China's coal power

China is the world's largest consumer and producer of coal. In 2021, its coal consumption and production accounted for over half of the world's total. China produces approximately 4.8 billion tons of coal per year, and in 2021, the country's coal consumption accounted for roughly 54% of global consumption. China's coal consumption is closely linked to its industrialization. Between 2002 and 2013, coal accounted for 77% of the increase in primary energy demand, driven mainly by coal consumption in the cement, chemical, and steel sectors.

Coal is widely used in China for generating electricity and producing heat, with 60% of coal used for these purposes in 2020. In 2021, 62.6% of China's power generation came from coal, a slight decrease from 2020 when the figure was 63.3%. China had 1100 GW of installed coal-fired power capacity in 2021, more than half of the world's total. The country has continued to build new coal-fired power plants and mines, with approximately 94.5 GW of new coal-fired power capacity constructed in 2024, the highest annual addition since 2015.

China's dependence on coal has raised concerns on a global scale, particularly due to the emissions caused by burning coal. China is the number one producer of carbon dioxide, responsible for a quarter of the world's CO2 output. In 2019, carbon emissions from coal in China were estimated at 7.24 billion tons, around 14% of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions. Coal combustion in China has contributed to more than 20% of global CO2 emissions from fossil fuels annually over the past decade.

There have been efforts to reduce coal's share in China's energy mix. During the 13th Five-Year Plan (2016-2020), policies were introduced to cap coal use, remove dispersed coal from urban areas, switch to natural gas heating, and tighten CO2 emissions standards. Chinese policymakers have also expressed intentions to “strictly control” coal use during the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) and start phasing it down in the following years. Additionally, China has been rapidly installing renewable energy sources, with more renewable capacity than the next 13 countries combined. However, this has not yet been enough to offset the rise in fossil fuel use, and concerns remain about resistance from stakeholders in the coal industry.

China's electronic waste

A major contributor to China's e-waste problem is the large amount of foreign e-waste imported into the country, primarily from developed Western countries. According to the United Nations, about 70% of electronic waste globally ends up in China, much of it through illegal channels. The southeastern town of Guiyu, located in China's main manufacturing zone, has been a major hub for the disposal of e-waste. The area has suffered an "environmental calamity" due to the widespread e-waste disposal industry, with toxic materials being burned and disposed of in bodies of water, causing devastating local environmental impacts.

China's formal e-waste recycling industry has developed in recent years, following strict regulations and governmental incentives. The formal recycling process practices safe methods of handling waste, allowing for the recovery of precious raw materials for future use. However, the majority of e-waste dumped in China, between 60% and 80%, is handled through illegal, informal recycling processes. These unregulated and unsafe practices remain profitable due to cheap labor and high demand for electronics disposal.

The informal sector consists of small-scale, often family-run workshops and "backyard" recycling operations, performed by marginalized groups. These recyclers often use extremely rudimentary methods, such as stripping metals by hand and disposing of parts in water bodies. The growth of consumption and production of electronic products is a significant reason for the increase in e-waste globally, and it is projected that e-waste will continue to grow in the coming years.

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