Meghan Hodges
Rocket launches are an integral part of the 21st century, but they also contribute to air pollution. The number of rocket launches has increased in recent years, with thousands of satellites being launched into low-Earth orbit by commercial companies and government agencies. This trend is expected to continue, with the growth of space tourism and satellite internet services. Rocket launches require large amounts of propellants, which determine the type of pollutants emitted. While most rocket launches currently use kerosene fuel, which emits carbon dioxide, water vapour and soot, alternative fuels such as liquid methane and liquid oxygen are being explored. Rocket emissions have been found to impact the ozone layer, the atmosphere and temperatures, with the degree of impact depending on the type of engine and propellant used. The pollution caused by rocket launches has raised concerns about its effects on the environment and public health, with scientists advocating for further research and the development of more sustainable practices in the space industry.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions | 50-75 tonnes of CO2 per passenger |
| Alumina (Al2O3), chlorine (converted from hydrochloric acid, HCl), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydroxyl (OH), and water vapour (H2O) | Contribute to ozone depletion through chemical reactions in the Earth’s stratosphere |
| Black carbon (BC) | 1,000 metric tons per year, could reach 10 gigagrams a year in a couple of decades |
| Temperature rise in the stratosphere | 0.5-2° Celsius or 1-4°Fahrenheit |
| Unsustainable fuel | Kerosene, UDMH (unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine) |
| Sustainable fuel | Liquid methane, liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen |
| Ground-level air quality impact | Low |
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What You'll Learn
Carbon emissions from rocket fuel
Rocket engines emit gaseous emissions, including water vapour, carbon dioxide, and hydrochloric acid, as well as solid particles of soot (or black carbon) and alumina (aluminium oxide). The most common gaseous emissions are water vapour and carbon dioxide from liquid and solid fuels, with hydrochloric acid being released only by solid fuels. The amount of carbon dioxide released depends on the type of rocket and fuel used. For example, the Falcon 9 releases 425 tonnes of CO2 per flight, while the Starship releases 716 tonnes. In comparison, a typical long-haul plane flight creates between 1 and 3 tonnes of CO2 per passenger. Rocket launches generate significantly more, with estimates ranging from 50 to 75 tonnes of CO2 per passenger.
The accumulation of rocket exhaust in the atmosphere is a growing concern as the space industry expands. While the current impact of rocket emissions on the climate is relatively small compared to other sources, the increasing number of rocket launches could lead to a significant increase in carbon dioxide and other emissions. The impact of these emissions on the atmosphere and climate is complex and not yet fully understood.
The combustion chemistry of rocket engines results in the emission of large amounts of black carbon compared to modern jet engines. Black carbon particles can absorb heat, acting as a form of geo-engineering, and have been linked to ozone depletion and changes in atmospheric circulation patterns. The warming effect of black carbon coincides with spatial patterns of ozone loss, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, which could expose people in these regions to increased harmful UV radiation.
The type of rocket fuel used also has an impact on emissions and the environment. For example, UDMH (unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine), a fuel used in many rockets launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, has been dubbed "devil's venom" due to its highly carcinogenic nature and its ecological impact on the surrounding area.
To reduce carbon emissions from rocket fuel, there is a growing trend towards using synthetic fuels, which burn much cleaner and can be fully renewable by using carbon captured from the atmosphere. Reusing rockets can also help spread out manufacturing emissions over the lifetime of the rocket, reducing the total emissions per launch.
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Climate change and temperature rise
Rocket launches have been an integral part of the 21st century, but they have also contributed to climate change and temperature rise. The impact of rocket launches on the environment has been a growing concern, with the exhaust from rocket engines releasing pollutants into the atmosphere. The type of fuel used in rockets can make a significant difference in their environmental impact. For instance, SpaceX's Starship spacecraft uses methane instead of kerosene, which burns cleaner and produces less black soot. However, the solid fuel engines attached to NASA's new Space Launch System moon rocket produce ozone-damaging chlorine pollutants.
Rocket launches contribute to climate change by releasing pollutants into the upper atmosphere, which can have a more significant impact on temperatures. The soot and black carbon particles emitted by rockets can remain in the atmosphere for up to five years, absorbing heat and contributing to temperature rise. According to a study, global rocket launches inject about 1,000 tons of soot into the upper atmosphere annually, and this amount is expected to increase with the expanding space industry. The particles emitted by rockets are also much more efficient at holding heat in the atmosphere compared to other sources of soot, leading to an enhanced warming climate effect.
The impact of rocket launches on the environment is not limited to air pollution. The Baikonur launch site in Kazakhstan has created a large pollution zone due to toxic rocket fuel seeping into the soil. Additionally, "space junk" from disused satellites and other objects accumulating in orbit can also have environmental consequences. As private commercial interest in space exploration increases, there are concerns about the potential impact on the climate. A study estimated that 1,000 space launches per year could result in a significant loss of Antarctic sea ice due to the accumulation of black carbon particles in the atmosphere.
While the space industry is a relatively small contributor to atmospheric emissions compared to other industries like aviation, the comparison may be misleading. Aircraft release pollutants in the troposphere and lower stratosphere, whereas rockets release pollutants from the Earth's surface up to the mesosphere. Pollutants released into the upper atmosphere last longer and have a more significant impact on climate change and temperature rise. Efforts are being made to develop more sustainable rockets, such as carbon-neutral rockets that run on hydrogen produced from biomass, but it is unclear if these initiatives will be widely adopted as the industry expands.
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Ozone layer depletion
Rocket launches are an integral part of the 21st century. However, they are a source of pollution and can cause ozone layer depletion. Ozone depletion has been a critical concern for nations across the globe for many decades.
Rocket launches are the only direct source of human-produced aerosol pollution above the troposphere, the lowest region of the atmosphere, which extends to a height of about 5 to 10 miles above the Earth's surface. Rockets emit gaseous and solid chemicals directly into the upper atmosphere. These include nitrogen oxides from re-entry heating and chlorine from solid fuels, which contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion.
Kerosene-burning rocket engines, widely used by the global launch industry, emit exhaust containing black carbon, or soot, directly into the stratosphere. This soot is almost 500 times more efficient at warming the atmosphere than all other sources of soot combined. The warming effect is further enhanced by the fact that these particles are almost 500 times more efficient at holding heat in the atmosphere.
Currently, global rocket launches deplete the ozone layer by approximately 0.03%, an insignificant fraction of the depletion caused by other ozone depletion substances (ODSs). However, as the space industry grows and ODSs fade from the stratosphere, ozone depletion from rockets could become significant. Scientists have found that ozone loss occurred poleward of 30 degrees North, or roughly the latitude of Houston, in almost all months of the year. The maximum loss of 4% occurred at the North Pole in June, with all other locations north of 30° N experiencing at least some ozone loss throughout the year. This spatial pattern of ozone loss coincides with the modelled distribution of black carbon and the associated warming.
The impact of space tourism launches may also undermine the recovery in the ozone layer achieved after the success of the 1987 Montreal Protocol, which banned substances that deplete the Earth's ozone layer. With the anticipated growth in the space industry, the environmental consequences of large rockets launched frequently will need to be reconsidered.
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Soil and ecological damage
Space launches have significant environmental impacts, particularly in terms of soil and ecological damage. The ecological footprint of space exploration is often overlooked, but it is crucial to understand the full extent of the harm caused by space launches to work towards mitigating these issues.
One of the main issues with space launches is the release of harmful chemicals and gases into the atmosphere. Rocket propellants, such as liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, burn during launch, releasing vast amounts of water vapour into the upper atmosphere. While water vapour is not inherently harmful, it is a potent greenhouse gas, contributing to climate change and global warming. Additionally, rockets also emit carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and other pollutants, which can have detrimental effects on the ozone layer and air quality.
The physical impact of rocket launches on the soil and immediate environment cannot be understated. During launch, rockets produce incredibly intense heat and acoustic radiation, which can cause You may want to see also Since the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, in 1957, tens of thousands of similar instruments have been sent into orbit. While satellites are used for a wide variety of purposes, from predicting meteorological patterns to monitoring emissions levels from power plants and other industrial facilities, they are also a source of pollution. Light Pollution The brightening of the night sky due to satellites and space debris is a significant concern. Astronomers have warned that light pollution caused by satellites threatens the future of their profession and our ancient relationship with the night sky. The number of satellites in low Earth orbit has more than doubled since 2019, when SpaceX launched the first "mega-constellation", which comprises thousands of satellites. Each new satellite increases the risk of collisions, creating more space junk that reflects light back to Earth. Research suggests that the night sky is already up to 10% brighter than it was at the beginning of the Space Age, even in remote places where ground-based light pollution is absent. It is estimated that the night sky at zenith will be at least 12% brighter by 2030, with the darkest part of the night sky becoming 7.5% brighter over the next decade. This will not only affect astronomers but also have cultural implications, threatening our shared heritage and connection to storytelling, art, origin stories, and cultural traditions. Air Pollution While not a direct source of air pollution, satellites play a crucial role in identifying and monitoring large areas of pollution caused by fires, dust or sand storms, volcanic eruptions, industrial sources, and the transport of man-made pollution. Instruments like the Tropomi on the ESA's Copernicus Sentinel-5P mission provide valuable data on nitrogen dioxide pollution, helping to improve our understanding of air quality and emissions from different sectors. You may want to see also A typical space launch generates between 50 and 75 tonnes of carbon dioxide per passenger. The main sources of pollution in a space launch are the rocket engines, which release combustion-driven propulsion that includes soot, black carbon, and other emissions into the atmosphere. Space launches have been found to contribute to ozone depletion, climate change, and increased pollution at all Earth orbit levels. The specific consequences depend on the type of engine and propellant used. The percentage of fossil fuels burned by the space industry is only about 1% of that burned by conventional aviation. However, with the projected increase in space launches, the relative contribution of space launches to pollution is expected to grow. Researchers are exploring alternative propellants and engines that have fewer environmental effects, such as methane-based propellants and hydrogen-fueled rockets. Regulatory efforts to set rules related to pollution from space launches may also help mitigate the pollution.Pollution's Impact: Mass Wasting and Environmental Devastation
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