Bronte Wells
Air pollution is a significant health and environmental issue worldwide, with nearly half of the global population exposed to increasing levels of air pollution. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), outdoor air pollution causes approximately 4.2 million premature deaths annually, with low- and middle-income countries disproportionately affected. Cities, in particular, face challenges in reducing air pollution due to various sources, including transportation, industrial activities, and waste management. The impact of air pollution on human health is evident, contributing to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and other adverse effects. While there have been efforts to address this issue, such as the Clean Air Act in the United States, climate change and other factors continue to pose challenges in maintaining healthy air quality in urban areas.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| People exposed to unhealthy air pollution levels in the U.S. | 156.1 million |
| Increase in people exposed to unhealthy air pollution levels in the U.S. from last year | 25 million |
| Percentage of the U.S. population exposed to unhealthy air pollution levels | 46% |
| People exposed to unhealthy ozone pollution levels in the U.S. | 125 million |
| Percentage of the U.S. population exposed to unhealthy ozone pollution levels | 37% |
| People exposed to unhealthy air pollution levels in low- and middle-income countries | 3.7 billion |
| Percentage of premature deaths due to outdoor air pollution worldwide | 68% due to ischaemic heart disease and stroke, 14% due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 14% due to acute lower respiratory infections, and 4% due to lung cancer |
| Global population exposed to air pollution above WHO Air Quality Guidelines | 50% |
| Global population exposed to PM2.5 levels above WHO AQG | 90% |
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What You'll Learn
Outdoor air pollution
Ambient (outdoor) air pollution in both cities and rural areas was estimated to cause approximately 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide per year in 2019. This mortality is attributed to exposure to fine particulate matter, which causes cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and cancers. The major components of particulate matter include sulfates, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust, and water. Outdoor air pollution is caused by various sources, including residential energy use for cooking and heating, vehicles, power generation, agriculture/waste incineration, and industry.
People living in low- and middle-income countries disproportionately bear the burden of outdoor air pollution, with 89% of the 4.2 million premature deaths occurring in these areas. The WHO South-East Asia and Western Pacific Regions experience the most significant number of deaths. This disparity is partly due to the industrialization and economic development occurring in these regions, as outdoor air pollution tends to increase during the transition from low to middle incomes.
The health effects of outdoor air pollution are significant and wide-ranging. According to the Global Burden of Disease study, outdoor air pollution contributes to millions of deaths worldwide. Long-term exposure to air pollution has also been linked to adverse effects on cognitive function. Additionally, air pollution is a major environmental risk factor for mortality, with one in ten deaths globally attributed to poor air quality in recent years.
Addressing outdoor air pollution requires concerted action from policymakers and individuals alike. Successful policies to reduce air pollution include implementing clean technologies, improving waste management practices, ensuring access to affordable clean energy solutions, promoting sustainable transportation, and improving the energy efficiency of buildings. Prioritizing walking and cycling networks in cities, as well as developing cleaner vehicles and fuels, can also help mitigate outdoor air pollution.
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Indoor air pollution
The air quality within buildings is affected by both indoor and outdoor sources of pollution. Outdoor air pollutants can enter buildings through open doors, windows, ventilation systems, and cracks in structures. For instance, harmful smoke from chimneys can re-enter homes and pollute the indoor air. Similarly, volatile chemicals in contaminated ground water or soils can enter buildings through cracks or gaps in their foundations.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed guidelines for indoor air quality and household fuel combustion to address the negative health impacts of indoor air pollution. These guidelines provide health-based recommendations on the types of fuels and technologies that protect health, such as solar, electricity, biogas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and natural gas. WHO also offers practical guidance on clean household energy solutions, including access to affordable clean fuels for cooking, heating, and lighting.
In addition to fuel and technology recommendations, WHO promotes the adoption of cleaner household fuels and technologies through capacity-building initiatives and consultations at the country and regional levels. WHO also maintains a global household energy database to monitor progress in transitioning to cleaner fuels and stove combinations in households worldwide. These efforts aim to reduce the health and environmental risks associated with indoor air pollution, which is a significant contributor to the global disease burden.
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Energy consumption
The burning of fossil fuels for electricity generation and transportation is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), the primary driver of global warming. Additionally, the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels releases toxic pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ground-level ozone, which have detrimental effects on human health and the environment.
To address this issue, there is a growing focus on transitioning to renewable energy sources in cities. Renewable sources such as wind, solar, and geothermal power emit little to no pollutants or greenhouse gases, offering a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels. Many cities have set ambitious targets to boost renewable energy adoption, and some have even enforced bans on fossil fuels. These efforts are crucial in reducing the pollution exposure of urban populations.
However, the transition to renewable energy is not solely about changing energy sources. It also involves reducing overall energy consumption and shifting consumption patterns. Cities can promote walkable communities, efficient public transportation, and urban agriculture to decrease the reliance on private vehicles and reduce energy demands associated with food production and transportation. Additionally, improving energy efficiency in buildings and promoting the use of clean technologies in industries can significantly reduce energy consumption and associated emissions.
By combining the adoption of renewable energy sources with energy conservation measures and sustainable consumption patterns, cities can significantly reduce pollution levels and mitigate the health risks associated with energy consumption.
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Climate change
The dense population of urban areas, coupled with their reliance on fossil fuels, renders city dwellers highly vulnerable to the consequences of climate change. Rising global temperatures lead to an increase in sea levels, a higher frequency of extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, and storms, and the expanded spread of tropical diseases. These events have detrimental effects on cities' basic services, infrastructure, housing, livelihoods, and human health. For instance, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported in 2018 that 93% of children worldwide breathe toxic air daily, putting their health and development at significant risk.
To combat climate change and reduce pollution, cities must transition to cleaner energy sources and adopt more sustainable practices. Fortunately, many cities are already taking steps toward these goals. Some are utilizing renewable energy sources, implementing cleaner production techniques, and establishing regulations to curb industrial emissions. For example, Hangzhou, China, introduced a bike-sharing scheme that not only improved public transportation but also significantly reduced air pollution by encouraging people to opt for bicycles instead of cars. Additionally, initiatives like the UN-Habitat's Cities and Climate Change Initiative (CCCI) in Jamaica have helped foster communication within communities and educate residents about climate-resilient activities and long-term planning for climate-compatible cities.
A coordinated approach is necessary to effectively address climate change, involving action at the global, regional, national, and local levels. By working together, cities can share successful strategies and accelerate progress toward a more sustainable future. This includes adopting policies that promote the use of renewable energy sources, which are becoming increasingly affordable, and implementing measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. With the projected growth of urban populations, particularly in Asia and Africa, the need for urgent action to mitigate climate change and safeguard vulnerable communities is more critical than ever.
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Health impacts
Air pollution is a major threat to global health and prosperity, causing more than 6.5 million deaths each year. It is the presence of contaminants in the atmosphere, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour, in quantities that can be harmful to human health. People's health risks from air pollution vary widely depending on age, location, underlying health, and other factors.
Respiratory Health
When National Ambient Air Quality Standards were established in 1970, air pollution was regarded primarily as a threat to respiratory health. Short-term exposure to higher levels of outdoor air pollution is associated with reduced lung function, asthma, and aggravated respiratory illnesses. Long-term exposure to air pollution can cause or worsen many breathing and lung diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, and chronic bronchitis.
Cardiac Health
Air pollution exposure has been linked to cardiac problems, including heart disease, and is a risk factor for all-cause mortality.
Cancer
In 2013, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization (WHO) classified air pollution as a human carcinogen. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter increases a person's risk of cancer, including trachea, bronchus, and lung cancers.
Neurological Health
A growing body of evidence suggests that air pollution may affect neurological development in children. Higher air pollution exposure has been linked to an increased risk of dementia, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease.
Other Health Impacts
Air pollution has been associated with a range of other health issues, including psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, low birth weight, pre-term birth, and small for gestational age births. The fine particulate matter in air pollution can also cause systemic inflammation and oxidative stress, which may lay the foundation for chronic diseases.
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Frequently asked questions
People in cities are exposed to a lot of pollution. In 2019, ambient (outdoor) air pollution in cities and rural areas was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide per year.
Bakersfield, California, has the worst short-term particle pollution in the US, according to the 2025 "State of Air" report by the American Lung Association. Los Angeles is the city with the worst ozone pollution in the nation.
Bangor, Maine, and San Juan, Puerto Rico, are the cleanest cities in the US, according to the 2025 "State of Air" report.
The main sources of air pollution in cities are emissions from transportation, power plants, and manufacturing. Other sources include waste incineration and industrial smokestacks.
There are several policies that can help reduce air pollution in cities, including:
- Prioritising rapid urban transit, walking, and cycling networks.
- Improving the energy efficiency of buildings.
- Making cities more green and compact.
- Capturing methane gas emitted from waste sites.
