China's Air Pollution Crisis: Who Is Responsible?

China's rapid economic growth has lifted millions of people out of poverty, but it has also resulted in severe environmental degradation. China's air pollution is a major problem, posing a huge threat to public health and causing about 2 million deaths in China per year. China's air pollution is caused by a number of factors, including the economic boom, an increase in the number of motorised vehicles, population growth, increased manufacturing outputs, and natural reasons. China's energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are rising, and it has been the world's largest annual greenhouse gas emitter since 2006, with total emissions twice that of the United States and nearly a third of global emissions.

China's air pollution crisis

One of the primary contributors to China's air pollution crisis is the country's industrialization process. The rapid economic growth, coupled with immense population growth since the 1980s, has led to a substantial increase in the burning of fossil fuels, resulting in smog and particulate matter pollution. This has had a detrimental impact on the air quality in China's cities, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases among the population. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), China's air pollution was responsible for approximately 1.85 million deaths in 2019, with 1.4 million attributable to particulate matter (PM) alone.

Particulate matter, particularly PM2.5, is considered one of the most harmful components of air pollution. It consists of fine particles that can penetrate deep into the lungs and cardiovascular system, leading to various health issues. In 2013, China launched an anti-pollution campaign specifically targeting PM2.5, which resulted in a 50% reduction in its average concentration by 2019. However, despite these efforts, the overall PM2.5 levels in China rebounded in 2023, affecting 80% of the provincial capitals, including Beijing.

In addition to particulate matter, China also faces challenges with other types of air pollutants, such as ozone (O3). Surface ozone is a significant air pollutant that exacerbates respiratory conditions and increases the risk of infections and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, China leads the world in mercury air pollution from its coal-burning power plants, both domestically and through its overseas operations. The country is also the world's largest annual greenhouse gas emitter since 2006, with total emissions nearly one-third of the global total.

The Chinese government has implemented various measures to address the air pollution crisis, including adopting the Ambient Air Quality Standard in 2012 and establishing a national Air Reporting System with monitoring stations in 190 cities. Despite these efforts, the overall level of air pollution in China remains unhealthy, impacting the quality of life and economies of its citizens. The pollution has also spread internationally, affecting downwind countries such as South Korea and Japan.

Economic and health impacts

Air pollution in China has had far-reaching economic and health impacts. It is estimated that air pollution causes about 2 million deaths in China annually. Of these deaths, ambient air pollution accounts for more than 1 million, while household air pollution from the use of polluting fuels and technologies for cooking causes another million.

The health effects of air pollution in China have been widely studied. The physical health of people has been a major focus of these studies, with air pollution being linked to respiratory diseases, chronic bronchitis, and chronic rhinitis. However, the impact of air pollution on mental health in China is not well understood, with few studies considering the mental health impacts. Regional healthcare resources have been found to positively correlate with the health of residents, and higher education, income, life satisfaction, and long-term marriage are associated with better health.

The economic impacts of air pollution in China are significant. It is estimated that by 2030, without control policies, PM 2.5 pollution could lead to a 2% loss in Gross Domestic Production (GDP), 210 billion Chinese Yuan (CNY) in health expenditure, and a life loss valued at around 10,000 billion. The impact of air pollution on GDP is likely to be even higher in the eastern provinces of China. Air pollution will also increase healthcare costs for Chinese residents, placing a greater economic burden on the government. For every 1% increase in PM2.5, household healthcare expenditure is expected to increase by 2.942%.

The Chinese government's expenditure on health is influenced by the interaction between air pollution factors and other factors such as GDP and industrial sulfur dioxide emissions. Industrial sulfur dioxide has been identified as a significant air pollutant, and its impact on human health is well-established, causing various diseases when inhaled over the long term.

Government anti-pollution measures

China's government has implemented various measures to combat air pollution, recognizing the severe impact of pollution on the environment and public health. The country's rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to high levels of energy consumption, with coal burning and industrial production being significant contributors to air pollution and carbon emissions.

In 2013, the Chinese government demonstrated its commitment to tackling this issue by announcing a package of 10 anti-pollution measures. These measures included forcing heavy-polluting industries, such as steel and petrochemicals, to release environmental data to the public, gradually complying with international emission limits, and replacing outdated technologies. The government also set a target to reduce pollution emissions by at least 30% in these industries by the end of 2017.

In 2014, Premier Li Keqiang declared a "war against pollution," marking a shift in the country's long-standing policy of prioritizing economic growth over environmental concerns. This declaration was followed by the implementation of the National Air Quality Action Plan, which has since cut particulate pollution by 39.8%. China has also passed laws and regulations, such as the Law on Air Pollution Prevention and Control, aimed at safeguarding public health, promoting ecological infrastructure development, and facilitating sustainable economic growth.

To address financing challenges for renewable energy projects, the government has worked with financial institutions like the Huaxia Bank to provide innovative financing products and green lending procedures. These efforts have helped support the government's Air Pollution Control Action Plan and promote clean energy and energy efficiency.

Additionally, China has adopted more nuanced anti-pollution measures, allowing local authorities to implement measures based on regional emission levels. The Ministry of Ecology and Environment and local environmental agencies have been directed to formulate air quality standards and pollutant emission standards for their respective jurisdictions.

China's efforts to combat air pollution have shown some positive results, with urban air quality improving over the past decade due to the relocation of factories, reduced coal burning, and stricter vehicle emission standards. However, challenges remain, and the government continues to work towards minimizing the economic and social costs of its anti-pollution measures.

Pollution from coal and fossil fuels

China's rapid economic growth has been largely powered by coal, a cheap but highly polluting source of energy. China is the world's largest consumer and producer of coal, and in 2021, its coal consumption and production accounted for more than half of the world's total. Each year, for the past decade, more than 20% of global CO2 emissions from fossil fuels have come from coal combustion in China.

In northern China, air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, mainly coal, is causing people to die on average 5.5 years sooner than they would have otherwise. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), solid fuels used in Chinese households cause approximately 420,000 premature deaths annually, with observed health effects including respiratory illnesses, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, weakening of the immune system, and reduction in lung function.

China has recognized the serious problem of pollution from coal and fossil fuels and has implemented several policies to address it. In 2013, the State Council issued an Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution, which aimed to reduce PM2.5 by over 10% from 2012 to 2017. The plan focused on reducing coal consumption by closing polluting mills, factories, and smelters, and switching to other eco-friendly energy sources. In 2020, President Xi Jinping pledged to reach carbon neutrality by 2060, sending a strong message about coal's long-term future in China. China's 2021 Mid-Century Long-Term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategy includes a goal of 80% non-fossil fuels in the energy mix, and the country has ambitious plans to reduce coal consumption in the coming decades.

Despite these efforts, challenges remain. New coal mines and coal-fired power plants continue to be built in China, due to concerns about energy security and power sector reliability. Grid bottlenecks and outdated transmission infrastructure have also hindered the potential of renewable energy sources, which still delivered just 22.5% of actual power consumption in the first quarter of 2025, despite accounting for more than half of China's installed electricity capacity.

International influence and criticism

China's air pollution problem has been subject to intense scrutiny, both domestically and internationally. The country's rapid industrialization has led to intense levels of air pollution, creating serious social, economic, and political problems. Internationally, China has been criticized for its contribution to global air pollution and climate change.

China is the world's largest emitter of anthropogenic air pollutants, and its energy-related emissions of carbon dioxide have increased by more than 80% between 2005 and 2019, according to the International Energy Agency. This increase in emissions has been driven by the country's growing reliance on fossil fuels, particularly coal, which still accounts for 60% of China's energy mix. Despite being a signatory to the 2015 Paris Agreement, which committed China to reducing its carbon emissions, the country's emissions continue to rise. This has led to criticism from other countries, such as the United States, which has also struggled with air pollution and climate change.

The US outsourcing of manufacturing to China has also contributed to the problem, as it has led to a reduction in US emissions but an increase in Chinese emissions. This dynamic has altered the global emissions landscape, with measurable amounts of Chinese pollution being transported via the atmosphere to other countries, including the US. According to a study, Chinese air pollution related to exports contributes 12-24% of sulfate pollution over the western US. This has impacted the air quality in the region, leading to an increase in non-compliance with the US ozone standard in certain areas.

International media and journalists have also played a critical role in holding the Chinese government accountable for its air pollution problem. Environmental journalists in China have served as key intermediaries between the public and the government, linking air pollution to broader issues of public health, economic development, political power, and social injustice. This has intensified public pressure on the authorities to reduce pollution and improve air quality.

China has responded to international criticism and scrutiny by strengthening its standards for monitoring and improving air quality. The country has set goals to peak its carbon emissions by 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060. While China continues to face challenges in balancing economic growth with environmental and social welfare, it has made some progress in improving air quality, particularly during the COVID era (2020-2022).

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