Greta Jimenez
Volcanic eruptions are known to release pollutants such as ash, dust, and carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. While the amount of pollutant released during an eruption varies, large eruptions can inject significant amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. For instance, the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens emitted approximately 10 million tons of carbon dioxide in just 9 hours. In comparison, human activities emit 60 or more times the amount of carbon dioxide released by volcanoes annually, with several individual U.S. states emitting more carbon dioxide in a year than all volcanic eruptions combined. While volcanic eruptions can have a noticeable impact on the environment, human activities remain the primary contributor to global carbon dioxide emissions and climate change.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Carbon dioxide released by volcanoes annually | 0.3 ± 0.15 billion metric tons (according to estimates from 1991-1998) |
| Carbon dioxide released by volcanoes annually | 0.6 billion metric tons (according to an updated estimate from 2013) |
| Carbon dioxide released by volcanoes annually | 130 million tons (according to USGS in 2010) |
| Carbon dioxide released by volcanoes annually | 200 million tons (according to USGS, no year specified) |
| Carbon dioxide released by volcanoes annually | less than 1 billion metric tons (according to data from 2013) |
| Carbon dioxide emitted by humans annually | 29 billion tons |
| Carbon dioxide emitted by humans annually | 35 billion tons (according to data from 2010) |
| Carbon dioxide emitted by humans annually | 40 billion tons (according to data from 2015) |
| Carbon dioxide emitted by humans annually | 60 billion tons (according to data from 2013) |
| Carbon dioxide emitted by Mt. Etna daily | 16,000 tons |
| Carbon dioxide emitted by Mt. Etna annually | 5.8 million tons |
| Sulphur dioxide emitted by Mt. St. Helens eruption in 1980 | 10 million tons |
| Sulphur dioxide emitted by Mt. St. Helens eruption in 1980 | 3750 tons per day |
| Sulphur dioxide emitted by Mt. Pinatubo eruption in 1991 | 20 million tons |
| Sulphur dioxide emitted by Laki fissure eruption in 1783-1784 | 120 million tons |
| Sulphur dioxide emitted by Holuhraun eruption in 2014 | 60,000 tons per day |
| Sulphur dioxide emitted by Kilauea eruption in 1986 | 2,000 tons |
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What You'll Learn
Carbon dioxide emissions
While volcanoes emit carbon dioxide, human activities emit far more. Human activities emit 60 or more times the amount of carbon dioxide released by volcanoes annually. In 2010, human activities emitted 35 billion metric tons of CO2, while volcanoes emitted less than 1 billion metric tons.
Volcanoes emit carbon dioxide in two ways: during eruptions and through underground magma. Large, violent eruptions may match the rate of human emissions for a few hours, but they are too rare and fleeting to rival humanity’s annual emissions. For example, the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens vented approximately 10 million tons of CO2 into the atmosphere in 9 hours. However, it now takes humanity only 2.5 hours to emit the same amount. It would take more than 700 Mount Pinatubo-sized eruptions over a year to emit as much carbon dioxide as people do.
The amount of CO2 emitted by volcanoes is highly uncertain due to the limited amount of volcanic emission measurements available. However, satellites like NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) have helped improve estimates. The 2018 Kilauea volcano eruption emitted large amounts of CO2, with a CO2 emission rate of 77.1 ± 49.6 kt day−1.
Some volcanoes emit more CO2 than others. Frequently active volcanoes like Etna, Bagana, and Kilauea can emit thousands of metric tons of CO2 per day. In contrast, Lassen Peak emits less than 100 metric tons of CO2 per day. Yellowstone is among the most significant sources of volcanic CO2 on Earth, with an estimated emission rate of 24,000 metric tons per day, though this estimate has a large amount of uncertainty.
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Sulphur dioxide emissions
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is one of the most common gases released during volcanic eruptions. It is a colourless gas with a characteristic irritating smell. SO2 is hazardous to human health, and populations and cities can be seriously affected by SO2 emissions during explosive volcanic activity. For example, during the 1976 eruption of Soufrière in Guadeloupe, the population complained of headaches associated with a strong SO2 odour. In 1991, volcanic fumes in the Huemules valley in Chile were so intense that some inhabitants became sick, resulting in vomiting and loss of consciousness.
SO2 emissions can also have a significant impact on the climate. When SO2 is injected into the stratosphere, it converts to sulphuric acid aerosol, which can remain in the stratosphere for weeks, months, or even years. These aerosols increase the reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space, cooling the Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere. Several eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the average temperature at the Earth's surface for periods of one to three years. For example, the climactic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 injected a 20-million-ton sulphur dioxide cloud into the stratosphere, resulting in a global cooling effect. The 1991 eruption of the Philippines' Mt. Pinatubo cooled the Earth's surface by about 0.5 degrees Celsius a year later.
The magnitude of the impact of SO2 emissions on the climate depends on the altitude and latitude of injection. In extreme cases, tiny aerosol particles can scatter sunlight, causing a cooling effect on the Earth's surface. While SO2 released in contemporary volcanic eruptions has occasionally caused detectable global cooling, it has not caused detectable global warming. In contrast, carbon dioxide (CO2) released in contemporary volcanic eruptions is a greenhouse gas blamed for climate change.
Volcanic SO2 emissions can be measured using ground-based and satellite-based remote sensing techniques. Satellites, such as NASA's Aura satellite and the Suomi-NPP satellite, can detect and map volcanic clouds and measure SO2 emissions by observing reflected sunlight. These measurements are important for monitoring and predicting the movement of volcanic clouds and rerouting aircraft when necessary.
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Ash and dust
Volcanic eruptions release a large amount of pollutants into the atmosphere. While human activities emit 60 or more times the amount of carbon dioxide released by volcanoes each year, large eruptions may match the rate of human emissions for a few hours. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, for instance, vented approximately 10 million tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in just 9 hours.
Volcanic ash consists of fragments of rock, mineral crystals, and volcanic glass, measuring less than 2 mm in diameter. It is formed during explosive eruptions when dissolved gases in magma expand and escape violently into the atmosphere. The force shatters the magma, propelling it into the atmosphere where it solidifies into fragments of volcanic rock and glass. Ash is also produced when magma comes into contact with water, causing the water to explosively flash into steam, shattering the magma.
The wide dispersal of ash can have a range of impacts on society, including health problems for humans and animals, disruption to aviation and critical infrastructure (such as power supply systems, telecommunications, and transportation), damage to buildings, and effects on primary industries like agriculture. Ash can cause eye and upper airway irritation, respiratory issues including nose and throat irritation, coughing, bronchitis-like illness, and discomfort while breathing. It can infiltrate buildings and cause problems with appliances, leading to unusual wear on electric motors and other machinery.
The abrasive nature of volcanic ash can damage vehicles, especially car engines, and disrupt transportation by reducing visibility and covering road markings. Airports may need to be closed until the ash is removed due to the hazard it poses to jet engines. Volcanic ash can also interfere with radio waves and other broadcasts, impacting communication systems and equipment. Additionally, ash can contaminate water supplies, disrupt sewage and electrical systems, and damage or kill vegetation.
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Hydrogen fluoride
Volcanic eruptions release a variety of gases and pollutants into the atmosphere, with water vapour being the most abundant, comprising over 60% of total emissions. Carbon dioxide typically accounts for 10 to 40% of emissions, with volcanoes producing less than 1 billion metric tons annually, a fraction of the carbon dioxide output from human activities.
Volcanic eruptions can also inject significant amounts of sulphur dioxide into the stratosphere, which can cause a decline in the average temperature at the Earth's surface for periods of one to three years. For example, the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo injected a 20-million-ton sulphur dioxide cloud into the stratosphere.
Other compounds detected in volcanic gases include hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen bromide, and sulphur hexafluoride. Hydrogen fluoride is a colourless gas with a strong irritating odour. During explosive eruptions, HF can condense onto ash and tephra particles, forming an outer layer of adsorbed fluorine. These particles can be carried far from the volcanic source, and if they encounter water, the highly soluble fluorine is quickly introduced into watercourses. This contamination of drinking water and soils by fluoride is well documented and can lead to fluorosis in both humans and animals. For example, in 2003, water tanks downwind of the Nyiragongo volcano in the DR Congo were found to have fluoride concentrations 15 times greater than the WHO guideline.
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Carbon monoxide
While carbon monoxide is a dangerous pollutant, carbon dioxide (CO2) is a more prevalent gas emitted by volcanic eruptions. CO2 is a greenhouse gas and the primary gas blamed for climate change. Volcanic eruptions release many pollutants, including ash, dust, and carbon dioxide.
Volcanoes emit carbon dioxide in two ways: during eruptions and through underground magma. Carbon dioxide from magma is released through vents, porous rocks, soils, and water that feeds volcanic lakes and hot springs. The amount of carbon dioxide released during an eruption depends on the volcano's size and intensity. Large, violent eruptions may match human emission rates for a few hours, but they are too rare and fleeting to rival humanity's annual emissions.
According to the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, volcanoes produce less than 1 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide annually. In contrast, human activities emit 60 or more times this amount due to the burning of fossil fuels, cement production, deforestation, and other landscape changes. In 2015, human activities emitted roughly 40 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide.
The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens released approximately 10 million tons of CO2 into the atmosphere in just 9 hours. However, it now takes humanity only 2.5 hours to emit the same amount. While large explosive eruptions like this are infrequent, occurring only about once a decade, human emissions are relentless and increasing annually.
Volcanic emissions of carbon dioxide can be monitored and predicted using various methods, including satellite-based monitoring, ground-based networks for semi-continuous CO2-SO2 gas sensing, and studying magma compositions. These methods help in forecasting eruptions and understanding the impact of volcanic activity on the Earth's atmosphere.
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Frequently asked questions
It depends on the volcano and the type of pollutant. For example, the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens emitted approximately 10 million tons of carbon dioxide, while the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo injected 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere.
Human activities emit 60 or more times the amount of carbon dioxide released by volcanoes each year. While large eruptions may match the rate of human emissions for a few hours, they are too rare and fleeting to rival humanity’s annual emissions.
Very large volcanic eruptions can inject significant amounts of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and other pollutants into the atmosphere, which can have a cooling effect on the Earth's lower atmosphere. For example, the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo cooled the surface of the Earth by about 0.5 degrees Celsius a year later.
On average, there are 45-50 volcanic eruptions happening simultaneously on our planet. However, large explosive eruptions like Mount St. Helens in 1980 only occur globally about once every 10 years.
While volcanic eruptions can have negative impacts on the environment and human activities, such as air travel, they can also have some positive effects. For example, the basalt rocks produced by the 2021 eruption in Iceland are capable of storing CO2 for eternity, which could help to mitigate climate change.
