Brian Barton
The study of pollution is a topic of growing importance as it is a pressing environmental issue that affects the health and well-being of humans, animals, and plants. Pollution has been studied for centuries, with ancient human settlements being identified by their waste. However, the establishment of permanent settlements and the use of coal for fuel around 1000 CE led to pollution becoming a more serious problem. The industrial revolution further exacerbated pollution, with air pollution from automobiles, industrial processes, and the burning of coal causing smog and deaths in cities like New York and London in the 19th century. Today, pollution continues to be a significant issue, with plastic pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and invasive species threatening ecosystems and human health worldwide.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of first pollution study | 1480 (Quelccaya ice core records evidence of pollution from Inca metallurgy) |
| Date of first modern pollution control legislation | 1955 (Air Pollution Control Act) |
| Date of first international pollution control framework | 1979 (Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution) |
| Recent significant pollution events | 1969 (Cuyahoga River fire), 2023 (Global Framework on Chemicals to reduce pollution agreed) |
| Major kinds of pollution | Air, water, land, noise, light |
| Sources of pollution | Automobiles, industrial processes, burning of coal, fossil fuels, plastic waste, pesticides, lead dust, volcanic activity, forest fires |
| Effects of pollution | Skin irritations, rashes, hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, sleep disturbance, developmental deficits in children, neurologic symptoms, cancer, birth defects, violent crime, adverse school outcomes, cardiovascular and respiratory disease, global warming, climate change, loss of biodiversity, coral reef destruction, ocean acidification |
| Global pollution mortality | 9 million deaths annually (triple the number of deaths caused by AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria combined) |
| Global economic cost of pollution | USD$5 trillion per year |
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What You'll Learn
Pollution in the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late 18th century, was a period of rapid economic growth and technological advancement. However, it also introduced pollution and acute hardships for workers, with far-reaching consequences that are still felt today.
The shift to machine-based manufacturing and the use of fossil fuels like coal led to a sharp increase in carbon emissions and harmful environmental pollution. Industrial cities pumped vast quantities of pollution into the atmosphere, with London's concentration of suspended particulate matter rising dramatically between 1760 and 1830. Pollution in Manchester was so severe that contemporary writer Hugh Miller described "the innumerable chimneys [that] come in view, tall and dim in the dun haze, each bearing atop its own pennon of darkness."
Air pollution caused by coal burning and metal and chemical production led to respiratory illnesses and higher death rates. Water pollution, often from the same sources, caused waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid, with devastating impacts on the health of urban populations. The rapid urbanization of the Industrial Revolution meant that basic public services like water supply, sanitation, and street cleaning struggled to keep up, exacerbating the health impacts of pollution.
The environmental degradation caused by the Industrial Revolution extended beyond air and water pollution. It also included deforestation, the depletion of natural resources, and greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to global warming and climate change. The Second Industrial Revolution, from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, further intensified these issues with the introduction of electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine, driving mass production and the growth of heavy industries.
While the Industrial Revolution brought about many positive changes, it also laid the groundwork for the large-scale carbon emissions and environmental issues that continue to challenge the world today.
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Air pollution in ancient times
The story of air pollution dates back to ancient times, with early humans polluting the air by lighting fires. Ancient indoor wood fires, for example, left their mark on the blackened lungs of mummified tissue from Egypt, Peru, and Great Britain. The earliest recorded complaints about air pollution come from ancient Rome, where residents decried the noxious smoke cloud hanging over their city. The jurist Aristo, for instance, declared that a cheese shop could not discharge smoke into the buildings above it. Lead and copper smelting during the medieval period further increased lead levels in the atmosphere by a factor of ten.
The ancient Romans also kept cows, sheep, and goats, which emit methane, a greenhouse gas. Around the same time, the Han dynasty in China expanded its rice fields, which harbour methane-producing bacteria. Human activities, notably metallurgy and large-scale agriculture, have been linked to increased methane levels as far back as 100 BC.
While the ancient world experienced air pollution, the problem became far more severe with the advent of the Industrial Revolution and the widespread use of fossil fuels. Cities like New York and London in the 19th century experienced episodes of "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) that resulted in numerous deaths. Los Angeles in the 1940s, with its million-plus cars, saw its air smogged in 1943, causing residents to fear a Japanese chemical attack. Similarly, in October 1948, severe air pollution in Donora, Pennsylvania, asphyxiated 20 people and made over 7,000 seriously ill.
The 20th century witnessed a growing awareness of environmental issues, with incidents like the Cuyahoga River fire in 1969 spurring grassroots activism and leading to the creation of the Clean Air Act in 1990. Despite significant improvements in some areas, such as a 90% decline in SO2 emissions in Europe and North America since the 1970s, air pollution remains a pressing issue today. New pollutants continue to be discovered, contributing to millions of premature deaths worldwide. The transition away from fossil fuels is crucial to mitigating the worst effects of climate change and air pollution.
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Water pollution in the US
Water pollution has been a concern in the US since at least the 19th century, when it was a known issue in urban areas. The problem has only grown with increasing industrialisation and population growth. While regulations have been in place since the 1950s to manage surface water pollution from agriculture, mining, and industrial sites, water pollution remains a significant issue in the US today.
A 2022 report by the Environmental Integrity Project found that about half of the river and stream miles and lake acres across the US are too polluted for swimming, fishing, or drinking. This is despite federal regulations mandated by the Clean Water Act of 1972, which has driven over $1 trillion in investments into wastewater treatment plants. However, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has faced criticism for not updating its standards for highly polluting industries since the 1970s.
Agriculture runoff is a major contributor to water pollution in the US. Factory-style animal production has led to a massive waste disposal problem, with excess fertiliser and manure washing into streams and rivers, causing algal blooms. Industrial waste is another significant source of pollution, with industrial chemicals and wastes contaminating waters. Sewage and wastewater are also key factors, as over 80% of the world's wastewater flows back into the environment untreated.
Water pollution has severe consequences for human health and ecosystems. It can cause skin irritations and rashes, induce hearing loss and high blood pressure, and lead to neurologic symptoms and developmental deficits in children. It also affects the food chain and reduces biodiversity. As such, water pollution remains a top environmental concern for Americans, with majorities expressing worry about the pollution of drinking water and rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
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Plastic pollution
The persistence of plastic debris in the environment is due to the resistance of plastics to decomposition. Commercial plastics are designed with stabilizers to prevent breakdown, and the chemical bonds that hold plastic molecules together are often stronger than natural decomposition processes. This results in plastics lasting for extended periods in the environment. For example, a plastic beverage holder is estimated to take 400 years to degrade, and fishing line can take up to 600 years.
The sources of plastic pollution are diverse, with single-use plastic products and packaging materials accounting for a significant portion of all plastics produced. These products are often improperly disposed of, leading to littering and environmental pollution. Rich countries tend to produce the most plastic waste per person, but it is the mismanagement of waste, particularly in low-to-middle-income countries, that contributes significantly to plastic pollution. Studies have found that most plastic flowing into the ocean today comes from middle-income countries, especially in Asia.
Efforts to address plastic pollution include reducing plastic consumption, litter cleanup, and promoting plastic recycling. Some governments have also taken steps to limit or ban the use of plastic bags. Additionally, the Basel Convention amendment in May 2019 regulates the exportation and importation of plastic waste to prevent shipping waste from developed to developing countries.
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Pollution and health
The study of pollution has a long history, with efforts to understand and combat it evolving over time. Pollution has been recognised as a significant environmental and health hazard for centuries, with its impacts on human health being a particular area of concern.
Air Pollution and Health
Air pollution is a major threat to global health, causing more than 6.5 million deaths each year worldwide. It is caused by the presence of contaminants in the atmosphere, such as dust, fumes, gases, mist, odour, smoke or vapour. The main pathway of exposure is through the respiratory tract, leading to inflammation, oxidative stress, immunosuppression, and mutagenicity in cells, impacting the lungs, heart, and brain, among other organs. Fine particulate matter, such as PM2.5, is of particular concern as it can penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream, causing serious health problems. Ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are also major pollutants with strong evidence of adverse health effects. Short-term exposure to high levels of particulate matter can lead to reduced lung function, respiratory infections, and aggravated asthma. Long-term exposure increases the risk of chronic diseases, including stroke, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cancer.
Water Pollution and Health
Water pollution has also been a longstanding issue, with industrial contamination of rivers and oceans leading to environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity. While water pollution can have indirect effects on human health through the disruption of ecosystems, there are also direct health consequences. For example, oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Additionally, water pollution can contaminate drinking water sources, leading to the spread of diseases and other health issues.
Other Forms of Pollution and Health
Noise pollution has been linked to various health issues, including hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbances. Mercury exposure has been associated with developmental deficits in children, while lead and other heavy metals can cause neurological problems, intellectual disabilities, and behavioural issues. Pollution from plastic waste is another pressing issue, with potential health impacts on marine life and the risk of plastic particles entering the food chain.
Reducing Pollution and Health Risks
Regulations and initiatives to reduce pollution have been implemented worldwide, recognising the significant health and environmental consequences. The transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is a crucial step in mitigating the health impacts of pollution, particularly in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating global warming. The Clean Air Act, for instance, has set limits on the discharge of air pollutants from industrial facilities and motor vehicles. Additionally, the Global Framework on Chemicals, agreed upon in 2023, aims to reduce the use of hazardous pesticides in agriculture. These efforts are essential to minimising the health risks associated with pollution exposure and protecting vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly, and pregnant women.
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Frequently asked questions
Pollution has been studied since at least the 19th century, when "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) in cities like New York and London resulted in many deaths.
Pollution became a serious problem when large groups of people established permanent settlements, as the waste generated began to accumulate. Ancient human settlements are often identified by their waste, such as shell mounds and rubble heaps.
The industrial revolution marked the beginning of modern pollution, with air pollution from factories, coal burning, and automobiles becoming a significant issue.
In the mid-20th century, governments began to take action to control pollution. For example, the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 in the United States was the first federal attempt to control air pollution.
The study of pollution has evolved from recognizing the immediate health and environmental impacts of pollutants to understanding their long-term effects on ecosystems and global phenomena like climate change.
