India's Air Pollution: A Historical Crisis

Air pollution in India has been a serious environmental issue for decades, with the country ranked as the most polluted in the world in 2018. The problem is caused by a range of factors, including industrial and vehicular emissions, construction dust and debris, and the use of wood and dung for cooking and heating by low-income households. In recent years, the Indian government has attempted to address the issue through initiatives such as the National Clean Air Programme, which aims to reduce PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations, and the expansion of renewable energy sources and electric vehicles. However, air pollution continues to be a major public health crisis, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and contributing to millions of premature deaths annually.

India's history of environmental legislation

Early Environmental Legislations

India has a long history of environmental legislation, dating back to the 19th century. One of the earliest laws concerning water pollution was the Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act of 1853, which authorised the removal of any nuisance below the high-water mark in Bombay harbours.

Environmental Legislations in the 1970s

The 1970s marked a watershed moment in India's environmental movement. The Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment in 1972 was a pivotal event that highlighted the need for comprehensive legislation to address health and safety concerns for people, flora, and fauna. This conference served as a catalyst for a series of environmental measures adopted by India.

Environmental Legislations in the 1980s

The 1980s witnessed a continuing decline in environmental quality, culminating in the Bhopal gas tragedy in 1984, which claimed the lives of over 2500 people. This tragic event spurred the Indian government to strengthen its environmental policies and legislation. In 1981, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was passed to regulate air pollution. However, this act fell short of effectively reducing pollution due to poor enforcement. In 1984, India had 28 air monitoring stations in seven cities, and the number increased significantly by 1994.

Environmental Legislations in the Mid-1980s

In 1986, as a direct response to the Bhopal gas tragedy, the Parliament passed the Environment Protection Act (1986). This act provided a framework for central government coordination and enabled the articulation of legislative policies. It also backed a range of subordinate environmental legislation in India.

Recent Initiatives

More recently, India has continued to combat air pollution through various initiatives. In 2015, the National Air Quality Index was launched in collaboration with IIT Kanpur. In 2019, India introduced the National Clean Air Programme, aiming for a 20-30% reduction in PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations by 2024. This programme targets 102 cities with poor air quality. Additionally, India is focusing on renewable energy expansion, electric vehicle promotion, and providing LPG cooking fuel to households.

India is also collaborating with international organisations like the World Bank to address air pollution. The World Bank is supporting Indian cities and states in implementing regional plans for cleaner air and emphasising institutional capability development.

Industrial and vehicular emissions

India's air pollution problem is a serious environmental issue. In 2019, 21 of the 30 most polluted cities in the world were in India. Vehicular emissions are a major contributor to this issue. India is the fifth-largest global car manufacturer with one of the highest compound annual growth rates (10%) of vehicle registrations as of 2019. Vehicular emissions contribute 20-30% of Particulate Matter (PM) 2.5 at the breathing level of air quality. PM2.5 refers to particles that have a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometres (more than 100 times thinner than a human hair) and remain suspended for longer. According to studies, vehicles annually contribute about 290 gigagrams (Gg) of PM2.5. At the same time, around 8% of total Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions in India are from the transport sector, and in Delhi, it exceeds 30%. The transport sector accounts for a quarter of total emissions, out of which road transport accounts for three-quarters of transport emissions (and 15% of total global CO2 emissions).

Vehicular emissions are the major contributors to particulate matter and ozone pollution, which have a greater negative impact on human health and climate. The health impacts of diesel vehicle emissions are adverse but unevenly distributed, both geographically and among the transportation sectors such as LDV, HDV, shipping, and off-road machinery. On shifting from one norm to another, tailpipe emissions have shown a significant decrease, as evident from the reduction of NOx and PM2.5 emissions by 30% and 80% when moving from BS-III to BS-IV norms. By implementing BS-VI norms, diesel engines may reduce their HC + NOx levels by 43%, NOx levels by 68%, and PM levels by 82%.

In India, vehicle technology is changing rapidly with changes in fuel quality, exhaust treatment systems of Internal Combustion Engines (ICE), electrification of vehicle segments, and steps towards hydrogen-powered vehicles. However, the current and future batches of ICE vehicles are likely to have a substantial share in the on-road fleet until 2040 and beyond. This requires not only substantial tightening of emissions standards but also modification of technical parameters for testing vehicles to reduce emissions in real-world conditions. To that end, the Indian government has proposed Bharat Stage Emission Standards (BSES) from 2000 onwards for reducing vehicular exhaust emissions. These norms are based on European (EURO) standards and several stages of BS standards (BS–I, BS-II, BS-III, BS-IV) have been proposed and since April 2020, BS-VI standards have been in action. The norms are placed to control tailpipe emissions with improvements in engine design and fuel standards with the aid of after-treatment technologies. These standards have set emission limits for carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and total hydrocarbon (THC).

Traffic gridlock in Delhi and other Indian cities is extreme, resulting in a build-up of local pollution, particularly under stagnant conditions. The average trip speed on many Indian city roads is less than 20 kilometres per hour; a 10-kilometre trip can take 30 minutes or more. At such speeds, vehicles in India emit air pollutants 4 to 8 times more than they would with less traffic congestion; Indian vehicles also consume a lot more carbon-intensive fuel per trip than they would if there was less traffic congestion.

To address the issue of vehicular emissions, the Indian government has announced several initiatives. In 2021, India’s Prime Minister announced the ambition to reach net-zero carbon emissions by 2070. The government is also placing a strong emphasis on expanding renewable energy, promoting electric vehicles, and supplying LPG cooking fuel to millions of households. As a result of these policies, EV sales are projected to reach nearly 35% of total vehicle sales in 2030. The International Centre for Automotive Technology in India is currently developing Real Driving Emissions (RDE) procedures that are likely to come into force in 2023.

Crop burning

The Indian government has introduced multiple measures to reduce crop burning, including bans and fines since 2015, but with limited success. Other measures include Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) contracts, which provide cash transfers conditional on not burning. Studies have shown that PES contracts can be more effective than fines and penalties in reducing crop burning, as they are not as challenging to enforce and allow farmers flexibility in choosing inputs.

Despite these efforts, crop burning remains a significant issue, with satellite imagery showing an increase in aggregate residue burning over time. This is due in part to the lack of adequate sustainable management practices for crop waste. Composting, biochar production, and mechanization are some effective techniques that can help address this issue while retaining crop nutrients in the soil.

The impact of crop burning on air quality and public health is significant. It contributes to dangerously high levels of air pollution in cities like New Delhi during the fall and winter months, with pollution levels rivaling those of fossil fuel emissions during peak summer. Small interventions, such as burning one hour earlier in the day, can provide broad public health benefits and even avert thousands of premature deaths each year.

Fuel adulteration

Air pollution in India has been a problem for decades, with the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act passed in 1981 to try and regulate it. However, due to poor enforcement, air pollution remains a serious issue, with India having some of the most polluted cities in the world.

One major contributor to India's air pollution problem is fuel adulteration. Adulteration of gasoline and diesel with lower-priced fuels is a common practice in South Asia, including India. Financial incentives, arising from differential taxes on different types of fuel, are generally the primary cause of fuel adulteration. Gasoline, for example, is taxed much higher than diesel, which in turn is taxed more than kerosene, which is meant to be used as a cooking fuel. As fuel prices rise, public transport drivers, who are often on low wages, cut costs by blending cheaper hydrocarbons into highly taxed ones. This blending can be as much as 20-30%, or even 80-90% according to some sources. While this yields short-term savings for drivers, the long-term consequences for air pollution and quality of life are ignored. Some adulterants increase emissions of harmful pollutants from vehicles, worsening urban air pollution.

The problem is exacerbated by the fact that oil companies refuse to take responsibility for the quality of the fuel they sell, and the government has lax fuel quality standards that allow for some amount of adulteration. The penalties for adulteration are weak, and accurate tests to detect it are not widely implemented. The use of adulterated fuel blends in vehicles such as taxis and auto-rickshaws contributes to the already severe air pollution problem in India.

To combat this issue, India has implemented initiatives such as the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojna, which aims to improve access to clean energy options like LPG at the household level, especially for marginalized sections of society. There is also a strong emphasis on expanding renewable energy, promoting electric vehicles, and supplying LPG cooking fuel to millions of households. Additionally, India has strengthened vehicular and industrial emission standards and is working with international organizations to develop India-specific practices to manage and control air pollution.

Indoor air pollution

India has been battling air pollution for several decades now. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution. However, due to poor enforcement, it has failed to reduce pollution effectively.

The main sources of indoor air pollution in India are the use of solid fuels such as wood, leaves, dung, and charcoal for cooking and heating. These fuels release toxic pollutants, including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and benzene. According to a Lancet study, the Indian government's efforts to provide subsidized liquified petroleum gas cylinders to women from low-income households have helped reduce indoor air pollution. However, critics argue that the success of the program may be overstated as rising cooking gas costs have led some households to revert to solid fuels.

To effectively address indoor air pollution in India, a combination of solutions is necessary. These include:

• Increasing subsidies for liquified petroleum gas (LPG) to make it more affordable for low-income households.
• Improving education and awareness about the long-term impacts of indoor air pollution, particularly among marginalized caste groups and tribal communities.
• Enhancing coordination between local and national jurisdictions to implement cost-effective joint strategies.
• Standardizing tools and control strategies across India to effectively manage air pollution at the sub-national level.

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