Water Pollution Measurement Methods In China Explained

Water pollution in China is a critical issue, with half the population lacking access to safe drinking water and two-thirds of the rural population relying on tainted water sources. This problem has severe health implications, with high rates of cancer and death in areas dependent on contaminated water, earning them the name cancer villages. China's economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization have contributed to this crisis, along with inadequate investment in water treatment infrastructure. To address water pollution, China has implemented various measures, including citizen monitoring programs and the development of health risk assessment systems. These initiatives aim to improve water quality, ensure safe drinking water, and mitigate the environmental and health risks associated with pollution.

Water quality standards and citizen monitoring

China's rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization have contributed to widespread water pollution. Inadequate investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure has exacerbated the problem. Water sources in China are contaminated with toxic levels of arsenic, fluorine, and sulfates, as well as high levels of animal and human waste. The impact of agricultural waste, particularly farm fertilizers, has been significant but often overlooked, doubling the government's original predictions for water pollution.

The Chinese government has recognized the urgency of the situation, and various ministries are actively involved in monitoring water quality. The Ministry of Ecological Environment and the Ministry of Water Resources are responsible for monitoring the quantity and quality of surface water, groundwater, and seawater, as well as emergency incidents. The National Health Commission is tasked with overseeing drinking water quality, and their monitoring efforts had covered almost all prefectures, counties, and 90% of towns and townships by the end of 2018.

Citizen monitoring plays a pivotal role in supporting government action and oversight. Central authorities have encouraged non-official monitoring, creating platforms for the public to report violations of pollution standards. This has led to a decrease in pollution levels, with waterways assigned to the government dissemination treatment experiencing at least a 19% improvement in water quality. The involvement of citizens helps to address the issue of local governments failing to implement water quality standards set by national and provincial authorities.

To measure water quality, professional laboratories are engaged to record various chemical and visual parameters. These include transparency, dissolved oxygen, oxidized reduction potential, ammonia, COD, phosphorous, and total nitrogen. These measurements are then used to form a water quality index, which serves as a basis for assessing the relative achievement of industrial water standards.

In conclusion, water quality standards and citizen monitoring are essential in tackling water pollution in China. The country faces significant challenges due to industrialization, urbanization, and inadequate water treatment infrastructure. The Chinese government and citizens are actively working to address these issues, improve water quality, and mitigate the health risks associated with polluted water sources.

Health impact assessment of surface water pollution

Water pollution in China is a severe issue, with half of the country's population lacking access to safe drinking water. This problem has been exacerbated by China's rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization, coupled with insufficient investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure. The Chinese government has recognized the issue and implemented various measures to tackle water pollution and improve drinking water safety.

The Chinese government and scholars have proposed further enhancing water quality, emphasizing more efficient and precise control of surface water pollution. The health dangers of surface water pollution, particularly carcinogenic risks, have been a long-standing issue. The Chinese government issued the Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Water Pollution in 2015 to strengthen pollution prevention and ensure drinking water safety. This plan clarified the responsibilities of local governments in improving water quality.

The health impact assessment of surface water pollution in China has been the subject of numerous studies. These assessments are typically conducted at the city level, integrating multi-scale datasets. The studies have identified two main gaps in the existing research. Firstly, most assessments focus on specific pollutants or pollutant types, rarely characterizing the comprehensive surface water quality. Secondly, they are often based on risk criteria and classification, neglecting the size and vulnerability of the exposed population.

To address these gaps, a relative risk level assignment approach based on the City Water Quality Index (CWQI) has been proposed. This approach innovatively tackles the challenge of surface water-human exposure risk assessment. A case study applying this method assessed the health impact of surface water pollution in 336 Chinese cities. The results showed a decrease in the total health impact between 2015 and 2022, with digestive cancers being the most significantly affected by surface water pollution.

Overall, health impact assessments of surface water pollution in China provide valuable insights into the health burden attributed to contaminated water. These assessments guide the development of effective policies and actions for water management, treatment, and pollution control, ultimately mitigating the health risks associated with water pollution.

Water scarcity and regional inequality

Water scarcity is a significant threat to China's sustainable development, with per capita water resources only a quarter of the world average. The country's rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization, coupled with inadequate investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure, have resulted in widespread water pollution. This pollution exacerbates the existing water scarcity and inequality in its distribution across China.

North China faces more severe water scarcity than South China. The availability of water in North China is insufficient to meet the demands of its population, resulting in extreme water pressures. In contrast, South China experiences seasonal water scarcity due to inadequate water quality. The inclusion of water quality dimensions further aggravates the inequality in water scarcity between these regions.

The impact of inadequate water quality on water scarcity and regional inequality in China is complex and not yet fully understood. Large-scale water scarcity assessments have primarily focused on the availability of sufficient freshwater quantities rather than the quality constraints on water usability. The limited coverage of water quality data and the use of different spatial resolutions in assessments contribute to the uncertainty surrounding the issue.

However, it is clear that water pollution is a critical factor in China's water scarcity and regional inequality. The contamination of water sources with toxic levels of arsenic, fluorine, sulfates, and agricultural and industrial waste has severe health implications. Over half of China's population consumes drinking water contaminated with animal and human excreta, leading to high rates of cancer and other diseases. The lack of wastewater treatment systems in most rural areas and the poor enforcement of environmental regulations allow factories to discharge untreated wastewater into water bodies, further exacerbating the problem.

Addressing water scarcity and regional inequality in China requires a multifaceted approach. While measures to reduce global warming and combat water pollution are essential, improving water treatment infrastructure and enforcing stricter environmental regulations are also crucial. By investing in modern water purification technology and establishing comprehensive health risk assessment systems, China can improve drinking water safety and mitigate the health risks associated with water pollution.

Industrial, agricultural, and human waste

China's rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization, coupled with inadequate investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure, have resulted in widespread water pollution. Industrial wastewater has historically been the major culprit of water pollution in China. The rapid industrial transformation over the past three decades has led to a drastic expansion in large-scale energy and metallurgy production, which has also brought a corresponding increase in pollutant discharges. In particular, the prevalence of small-scale manufacturing plants and family-based workshops that often adopted outdated and inefficient technologies led to the generation of large amounts of industrial waste and wastewater, which were mostly disposed of without proper treatment. The pollution intensity varies significantly among different industries, with the top polluting industries being the paper-making, chemical, coking, and non-ferrous metal ore mining industries, which together accounted for nearly 80% of heavy metal discharges from industrial sources.

China is also the largest consumer of fertilizer and pesticide in the world, and the amounts of application continue to increase. Fertilizers and pesticides are the most important sources of pollution, which affect human health as persistent organic pollutants and environmental endocrine disruptors. Eutrophication of surface water and nitrate pollution of groundwater are serious threats to drinking water safety. Sewage irrigation is becoming a pollution source in China due to a lack of effective regulations. Although technology and management levels have advanced, controlling nitrogen and phosphorus emissions and reducing water pollution remains a major challenge for China.

The quality of drinking water is closely related to public health. Currently, 5.5% of reservoir water sources and 16.1% of lake water sources in China are not compliant with regulations. Water purification technology is relatively outdated, and many companies still use conventional water treatment processes or have no water treatment measures at all. There is also a secondary pollution risk due to aging water supply networks, and byproducts of disinfection affect water quality.

All provinces, cities, and counties have implemented water protection measures based on their actual conditions and level of pollution. The Ministry of Ecological Environment and the Ministry of Water Resources are responsible for monitoring the quantity and quality of water in the environment, including surface water and groundwater, production of domestic water, and seawater and freshwater resources. The extensive surveillance of water quantity and quality provides data and information for environmental management and also provides a basis for quality assessments of river and marine water. The National Health Commission is responsible for monitoring drinking water quality. At the end of 2018, China's monitoring of drinking water quality in urban and rural areas had basically covered all prefectures, counties, and 90% of towns and townships, and it aimed to cover all townships and towns by 2020.

Government and company responsibility

The Chinese government has implemented various measures and policies to address water pollution, with a focus on the responsibility of local governments and companies.

The Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law, amended in 2017, outlines the government's role in preventing and controlling water pollution. It emphasizes the priority of protecting drinking water sources, rigorously controlling industrial and urban domestic pollution, and promoting ecological management projects. Local governments at or above the county level are responsible for bringing water protection into their economic and social development plans and ensuring water quality in their regions.

The 2008 Water Pollution Control Law (WPPCL) strengthened the environmental protection responsibility of local governments, addressing the issue of local protectionism. It required governments to take countermeasures against water pollution and made them accountable for water quality. The WPPCL also introduced stricter penalties for non-compliance.

The Action Plan for Water Pollution Prevention and Control, promulgated in 2015, clarified that local governments are responsible for improving water pollution. The Ministry of Ecological Environment and other ministries guided local governments in implementing this plan. By 2017, they had achieved goals such as ensuring no large floating objects or garbage on river surfaces and reducing black and odorous water.

In addition to government efforts, companies and public institutions also have responsibilities outlined in the Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law. They are required to take treatment measures to prevent water pollution and are subject to fines or closure if they fail to comply. The administrative department of environmental protection supervises and inspects the quality and quantity of discharged water, ensuring that entities meet the state or local standards for water pollutant discharge.

Public participation and citizen monitoring of waterways have also been recognized as important components of water pollution reduction in China. Studies have shown that citizen monitoring can decrease pollution by supporting government action and oversight. This has prompted local governments to respond to public appeals and enhance remediation efforts.

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