Meghan Hodges
Water pollution is a pressing issue in India, with severe consequences for both the environment and public health. The country's growing urbanisation and industrialisation have led to an increase in water demand and pollution from domestic and industrial wastewater discharges. India's water pollution crisis is caused by a range of factors, including sewage discharge from cities, towns, and villages, agricultural runoff, industrial waste, and improper waste disposal. These sources introduce pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and chemicals into water bodies, leading to waterborne diseases, environmental degradation, and drinking water contamination. Addressing water pollution in India requires effective wastewater treatment processes, sustainable practices, and collaborative efforts between public and private partners.
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What You'll Learn
Sewage and wastewater treatment
India's water pollution crisis is a complex issue with multiple sources and impacts. Sewage discharged from cities, towns, and some villages is the predominant cause of water pollution in the country. India's demand for water is projected to be twice the available supply by 2030, and the country needs to upgrade its wastewater treatment processes and increase its treatment capacity.
The country's sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time due to improper design, poor maintenance, or a lack of reliable electricity supply. The waste generated in these areas percolates into the soil or evaporates, and the uncollected waste accumulates in urban areas, causing unhygienic conditions and releasing pollutants that leach into surface and groundwater.
The latest data released by the Central Pollution Control Board in December 2022 revealed that Indian cities treat only 28% of the 72,368 million litres of sewage they generate daily. This is a slight improvement from the 17% treatment rate reported in 2020/2021. While the number of operational sewage treatment plants doubled between 2014 and 2020, the capacity for water treatment is still severely lacking.
To address this issue, India has been adopting advanced sewage wastewater treatment technologies. Several states have recently opted for newer technologies that offer 80-90% treatment efficiency, such as sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) and moving bed biofilm reactors (MBBRs). These technologies have higher treatment and nutrient removal capacities and are more resource-efficient.
The private sector in India, including power, food and beverage, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, refineries, and textiles industries, prefers advanced treatment technological systems such as reverse osmosis membranes for treating their wastewater. The concept of wastewater recycling and zero-discharge systems is also gaining traction, with industries such as power plants, oil refineries, and fertilizer plants pursuing the principle of Reuse, Recycle, and Zero Liquid Discharge to better manage water usage and improve their environmental footprint.
The Indian government has also taken initiatives to improve water and wastewater management. In May 2019, the government created the Jal Shakti Ministry to bring all water-related agencies under one ministry and provide safe drinking water to its citizens. The ministry launched the Jal Jeevan Mission, which aims to provide piped drinking water to 146 million households in 700,000 villages by 2024.
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Industrial discharge
Water pollution in India is a pressing issue that has detrimental effects on both the environment and public health. One of the key sources of this pollution is industrial discharge, which refers to the release of various chemicals and waste products from factories and industrial plants directly into water bodies or indirectly through drainage systems.
Industries in India discharge a range of pollutants, including heavy metals, chemicals, and oils. These pollutants have severe impacts on aquatic life, leading to toxicity and the decline of fish and other aquatic organisms. They also contaminate drinking water sources, causing significant health issues for those who rely on these water sources. It is important to note that industrial wastewater is highly unregulated in India, and the existing treatment plants are insufficient and often non-functional due to poor maintenance and a lack of electricity supply.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) reported that as of 2016, there were 746 industries directly depositing wastewater into the Ganga, India's largest river. This wastewater contains high levels of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, copper, chromium, zinc, and arsenic, which have severe ecological and human health consequences. The introduction of agrochemicals and pesticides into water bodies further exacerbates the problem, leading to bioaccumulation and potential carcinogenic and mutagenic effects.
To address this issue, India has taken several initiatives to prevent industrial pollution of water resources. For example, the government has implemented the Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) treatment process to eliminate liquid waste from highly polluting industries. Additionally, there is a push for stricter regulation of industrial effluents and community-led enforcement through ecosystem-specific discharge standards. However, as India continues to struggle with effective regulatory enforcement, there is a risk of long-term ecological harm masked by short-term economic prosperity.
Overall, industrial discharge is a significant contributor to water pollution in India, and addressing this issue requires a combination of regulatory reforms, improved wastewater treatment infrastructure, and sustainable practices to reduce the release of harmful chemicals into water bodies.
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Agricultural runoff
The intensification of agriculture, with higher application rates of nitrogen fertilisers, has increased nitrogen pollution in India's rivers. This has led to water quality impairments, with reactive nitrogen applied to the land potentially entering water sources. While long-term data on riverine nitrogen fluxes is lacking, studies have found large seasonal and interannual variability in nitrogen runoff, influenced primarily by precipitation and seasonal monsoons.
The impact of agricultural runoff is particularly notable during flood flows and the months following the monsoons. While pollution from agricultural sources may be rare during the fair-weather months, surface wash-off of pollutants becomes a dominant factor when flooding occurs. Additionally, seepage and drainage from agricultural fields continue to pollute streams even after the monsoons have ended.
Agricultural diffuse pollution is of particular concern in India, where agriculture and rural habitats are still dominant. The introduction of intensive farming techniques, involving significant irrigation and agricultural chemicals, exacerbates the problem. Routine pollution control methods may not be sufficient to address this issue effectively.
To address agricultural runoff, it is essential to reduce the use of harmful chemicals, improve waste disposal practices, and implement effective wastewater treatment processes. Adopting more sustainable agricultural practices and supporting policies that prioritise clean water for all can also help mitigate the impacts of agricultural runoff on water pollution in India.
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Solid and hazardous waste disposal
The management of solid waste in India, traditionally the responsibility of local municipal authorities or urban local bodies (ULBs), has been inadequate due to financial constraints and a lack of technical knowledge. This has resulted in uncollected waste accumulating in urban areas, causing unsanitary conditions and releasing pollutants that leach into surface and groundwater. The existing sewage treatment plants in India also suffer from poor maintenance and unreliable electricity supplies, further contributing to the problem of water pollution.
To address these issues, the Indian government has initiated various projects, such as the Swachh Bharat mission in 2014 and the development of 100 smart cities across the country in 2015. The Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change also amended the Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules in 2016, incorporating the three principles of a circular economy: reduce, reuse, and recycle. These initiatives, along with strict enforcement by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), aim to encourage integrated waste management systems among ULBs.
Despite these efforts, solid waste management remains a challenge, particularly in cities with high population densities and rapid economic growth. The market for solid waste management in India is expected to grow, with an increasing focus on sustainable practices. The collection and transportation segments currently account for the largest share of the market due to the lack of proper infrastructure. However, the treatment and disposal segments are projected to witness significant growth as India strives for more sustainable waste management.
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Population growth and urbanisation
India is one of the most populous countries in the world, with about 17.1% of the world's population. The country's booming economy, population growth, and rapid urbanization have had a significant impact on its water demand. India's water resources are under immense pressure due to the expanding urban population, which contributes to both water demand and water pollution.
The gap between sewage generation and treatment capacity in India is a critical issue. While major cities produce 38,354 million litres of sewage daily, the urban sewage treatment capacity is only 11,786 million litres, resulting in a significant volume of untreated sewage being discharged into water bodies. This problem is exacerbated by the inadequate operation and maintenance of existing sewage treatment plants due to improper design, poor maintenance, unreliable electricity supply, absentee employees, and poor management. As a result, domestic wastewater percolates into the soil or evaporates, causing unhygienic conditions and releasing pollutants that leach into surface and groundwater.
The Ganga River, worshipped as a living goddess by millions, is facing significant pressure from rapid urbanization. Over 100 towns and cities discharge their domestic sewage into the river, making it the second most polluted river in the world. Approximately 2.9 billion litres of untreated wastewater from industrial and domestic sources are dumped into the Ganga daily, along with 1.2 billion pounds of plastic annually.
The southern state of Kerala, despite receiving high rainfall, faces water source depletion due to the rapid growth of built-up areas. Similarly, the city of Shimla, a popular tourist destination, experiences water scarcity due to declining water sources, rapid population growth, and increasing tourism. Continuous piped water supply remains a challenge for fast-urbanizing Indian cities, with most urban households receiving water for only a few hours a day or a few days a week.
Population growth and urbanization have also led to intensive agriculture, industrial production, and infrastructure development, further contributing to water pollution. India's groundwater reserves, an essential source of drinking water and irrigation, are being extracted at an unprecedented rate due to increasing population pressures, industrial growth, and rapid urbanization. This overexploitation of groundwater has led to water scarcity in several states, including Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
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