Brian Barton
China's pollution problem is a major public health issue, causing around 2 million deaths per year. The country has seen tremendous progress over the past few years, but it still ranks 13th among the most polluted countries globally. China's rapid development has resulted in excessive greenhouse gas emissions, with air pollution levels far exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. While China has made significant strides in reducing pollution, it continues to battle high levels of air and water pollution, causing serious environmental and health consequences.
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What You'll Learn
Air pollution: a major public health issue
Air pollution is a major public health issue in China, causing around 2 million deaths per year. The problem has arisen over the past three decades as a result of rapid development and excessive emissions of greenhouse gases. The burning of fossil fuels, vehicle emissions, industrial activities, and illegal discharges have all contributed to the poor air quality.
The health impacts of air pollution in China are significant. It is estimated that people in northern China die on average 5.5 years sooner than they would otherwise due to air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, principally coal. High levels of air pollution in cities cause 350,000–400,000 premature deaths annually, with a further 300,000 people dying from poor-quality indoor air. The economic costs are also high, with air pollution resulting in losses of up to 6.6% of China's GDP, or $38 billion, each year due to early deaths and lost food production.
China has made some progress in recent years in reducing air pollution. In 2014, the country announced a "war against pollution," and since then, fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) has been decreasing. Between 2013 and 2017, PM2.5 levels were reduced by 33% in at least 74 cities, and they fell by a further 10% the following year. As a result, the average Chinese citizen can expect to live two years longer compared to 2013 if these reductions are sustained. In 2019, the city of Linzhi in Tibet was recorded as China's cleanest city, with a US Air Quality Index (AQI) figure of 27.
However, despite this progress, China is still the 13th most polluted country in the world. Particulate pollution in Beijing is 40% higher than in the most polluted county in the United States. Overall, 99.9% of China's 1.4 billion people live in areas where annual average particulate pollution levels exceed WHO guidelines. If current pollution levels continue, China could lose 3.6 billion total life years. To address this issue, the Chinese government has encouraged the shift from coal to natural gas and has invested heavily in renewable energy sources and electric vehicles. While China has made strides in reducing air pollution, more work is needed to improve air quality and protect public health.
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Water pollution: unsafe drinking water
Water pollution in China is a critical issue, with unsafe drinking water posing significant risks to public health and the environment. China's rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization have resulted in widespread water contamination. Inadequate investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure has further exacerbated the problem.
The impact of water pollution on human health cannot be overstated. Approximately 700 million people in China consume drinking water contaminated with animal and human waste, exceeding permissible levels by up to 86% in rural areas and 28% in urban areas. This has led to alarming trends in cancer rates, particularly in the Huai River Basin, where areas with the most polluted water have experienced a significant increase in digestive-system cancer deaths. Arsenic poisoning in drinking water is also a concern, with 2,667 villages affected by the end of 2018, exposing 1.6 million people.
Industrial waste, chemical fertilizers, and raw sewage are primary contributors to water pollution in China. The country loses approximately half of the $69 billion to pollution each year due to these factors. About 11.7 million pounds of organic pollutants are emitted into Chinese waters daily, far surpassing other countries. The presence of dangerous levels of arsenic, fluorine, and sulfates in drinking water has severe health implications, including high rates of liver, stomach, and esophageal cancer.
China's government has recognized the severity of the issue and has taken steps to address it. In 2015, the Ministry of Environment ordered provinces to meet their water quality targets. However, non-compliance and a lack of enforcement have hindered progress. The Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Water Pollution was also introduced to strengthen measures, and the "Healthy China 2030" initiative emphasized enhancing health risk assessment systems. Despite these efforts, water scarcity and groundwater pollution remain significant challenges.
Access to safe drinking water is expanding across China, with a notable decrease in the number of people relying on untreated sources. However, economic development and industrialization continue to strain water security. The treatment of wastewater and management of aging water supply networks are crucial areas that require attention to ensure the provision of safe drinking water for China's growing population.
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China's progress: reducing pollution
China's environmental crisis, the result of decades of rapid industrialization, has threatened the health and livelihoods of its 1.4 billion people and the global fight against climate change. As the world's largest source of greenhouse gas emissions, China has been notorious for its bad air pollution. Its carbon-intensive industries have also caused environmental challenges, including water scarcity and soil contamination.
In 2013, China faced an unprecedented environmental health crisis, with worsening air pollution. In response, the government launched an anti-pollution campaign focused on controlling PM2.5, deemed the most harmful particulate matter. The average PM2.5 concentration dropped by 50% from 2013 to 2019, and China continued to improve air quality during the Covid era (2020-2022). According to a University of Chicago study, the decline in global pollution levels from 2013 to 2020 can be attributed to China's success in steeply reducing pollution.
China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution in recent years. In 2016, only 84 out of 338 prefecture-level cities attained the national standard for air quality. By 2018, those 338 cities enjoyed good air quality on 79% of days. The amount of harmful particulates in the air in China fell by 40% from 2013 to 2020, and average PM2.5 concentrations fell by 33% from 2013 to 2017 in 74 cities. China's fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) has been decreasing since the country announced a "war against pollution" in 2014, with pollution levels down by 41% compared to 2013.
China has implemented policies to curb emissions and address environmental degradation, such as signing the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate and pledging to be carbon neutral by 2060. In 2017, China became the leading global source of clean energy investments and established the world's largest carbon trading market, regulating about 30% of its carbon emissions. China has also taken measures to address water pollution, such as rapidly building out water infrastructure and increasing regulation.
Despite this progress, China is still the 13th most polluted country in the world. Practically all (99.9%) of China's 1.4 billion people live in areas where the annual average particulate pollution level exceeds WHO guidelines. Pollution in China's cities causes 350,000-400,000 premature deaths, and another 300,000 die due to poor indoor air quality. China's carbon emissions continue to threaten global efforts to fight climate change, and its Belt and Road Initiative finances coal-fired power plants abroad. While China has shown leadership in tackling air pollution, it still has work to do to achieve sustainable reductions and protect the health and well-being of its citizens.
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Fossil fuels: high emissions
China's rapid development over the past three decades has resulted in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases. The burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, has caused severe air pollution, leading to significant public health issues and even deaths. According to a draft report by the World Bank and SEPA in 2007, approximately 760,000 people die prematurely each year in China due to air and water pollution. High levels of air pollution in Chinese cities are responsible for 350,000–400,000 premature deaths, while another 300,000 people succumb to poor indoor air quality.
China's air quality has been a significant social issue, with Chinese citizens participating in numerous protests to express their concerns. In response to the growing problem, China announced a "'war against pollution'" in 2014, and significant progress has been made since then. By 2022, pollution levels had decreased by 41% compared to 2013, and the average Chinese citizen could expect to live two years longer as a result of these improvements. However, China still has a long way to go, as it remains the 13th most polluted country in the world.
China's efforts to reduce emissions and combat pollution have been mixed. On the one hand, China has made substantial progress in increasing its forest cover and reducing air and water pollution. In 2017, China also became the leading global source of clean energy investments and established the world's largest carbon trading market. Additionally, China ratified the Paris Agreement and has set ambitious targets for reducing CO2 emissions and increasing the share of non-fossil fuels in its energy mix.
However, overseas energy investments by Chinese institutions have primarily focused on fossil fuels, potentially locking recipient countries into traditional, high-polluting energy sources for decades. While China pledged to reduce its CO2 intensity and increase the share of non-fossil fuels in its energy consumption, it has faced challenges in meeting these goals. In 2020, China's leader, Xi Jinping, reaffirmed the country's commitment to tackling climate change by aiming for carbon neutrality before 2060. Despite these promises, recent joint statements with the US have lacked specific language on phasing out fossil fuels.
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Protests: citizens' complaints
Air pollution is a major public health issue in China, causing hundreds of thousands of premature deaths each year. In the past, Chinese citizens have participated in protests to express their concerns about air quality. These protests have sometimes been broken up by the police, and citizens' activism has been labelled as "subversive turmoil".
There are various ways in which citizens in China have tried to address their pollution-related grievances. These can be broadly categorised into legal and political action. Legal action includes tort litigation against companies and administrative litigation against enforcement authorities for negligence in their environmental duties. Political action includes complaints and petitions to enforcement authorities, petitions to higher levels of government, media involvement, and collective action through demonstrations, blockades, or physical action against industry premises. Citizens will often try multiple courses of action, starting with relatively non-risky and simple actions such as complaints and petitions, and moving towards more formal and risky action such as litigation and protests.
Complaints are the most popular and widely-used mode for individuals or communities protecting their environmental interests and public safety in China. The Chinese state set up its environmental complaint system, the 'Huanjing Xinfang' system, in the early 1990s. A study examining 5796 cases of environmental complaints lodged by citizens via hotline and the internet to the MEP of China between 2013 and 2017 found that 75.88% of cases were verified complaints. Air pollution was the most common concern, accounting for 67.22% of total cases. Industrial wastewater and SO2 were also positively associated with the likelihood of citizens filing complaints. The proliferation of the internet has greatly facilitated citizens lodging complaints.
Despite the risk of arrest and prosecution, citizens have participated in numerous protests to express their complaints about air quality. In 2016, protests broke out in Chengdu in response to heavy smog, and in 2017, residents in Daqing protested plans to build an aluminium plant over concerns that it would add to local air pollution. More recently, in 2019, protests broke out in Wuhan after the announcement of plans to construct a waste-to-energy plant, which local residents feared would blanket the area in toxic pollution.
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Frequently asked questions
China is currently the 13th most polluted country in the world. 99.9% of China's 1.4 billion people live in areas where the annual average particulate pollution level exceeds WHO guidelines.
China's pollution levels have been decreasing since 2014, when the country announced a "war against pollution". Between 2013 and 2017, PM2.5 levels were reduced by 33% in 74 cities. By 2022, pollution levels were down by 41% compared to 2013.
The main sources of pollution in China are vehicle emissions, power stations, industrial activities, and the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal.
