Air Pollution: China's Resource Use Crisis

China's air pollution is a pressing issue that has severe consequences for its citizens and the world. The country's rapid industrialization, urbanization, and economic development have led to increased emissions of greenhouse gases and harmful pollutants. China is the world's leading annual emitter of greenhouse gases and mercury, with energy-related emissions of carbon dioxide rising significantly in recent years. This has resulted in high levels of air pollution, particularly in the east and northeast regions, affecting the health of its population and contributing to environmental degradation.

The Chinese government has implemented policies and taken measures to combat air pollution, including the adoption of the Ambient Air Quality Standard and the development of a national Air Reporting System. However, the impact of these efforts has been mixed, with some improvements in certain regions but also a recent rebound in overall PM2.5 levels. The increasing dependency on fossil fuels, particularly coal, remains a significant concern, and China's coal production and imports have surged in recent years.

The effects of air pollution in China are widespread and have led to serious health issues, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and premature deaths. The dense population and rapid economic growth have also resulted in severe water pollution and soil contamination, further exacerbating the environmental challenges.

To address these issues, China has invested significant sums in efforts to reduce air pollution, with the Academy for Environmental Planning pledging $277 billion in 2013. The government has also focused on developing alternative energy sources such as nuclear, hydro, and compressed natural gas, while trying to reduce coal consumption and outdated industrial capacity.

Overall, China's air pollution remains a critical issue with complex causes and far-reaching impacts, and continued efforts are needed to improve air quality and protect the health and well-being of its citizens.

Fossil fuels

China's past economic growth has been heavily reliant on fossil fuels, leading to severe air pollution. This has caused a range of problems, from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases to climate change. The combustion of fossil fuels releases harmful pollutants, such as particulate matter (PM2.5), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and greenhouse gases. These pollutants have detrimental effects on human health and the environment.

China's use of fossil fuels has resulted in high levels of air pollution, particularly in urban areas. The country's cities have some of the worst air quality in the world, with emissions from residential, industrial, and transportation sectors contributing to the problem. The burning of fossil fuels for cooking and heating in rural and urban households further exacerbates indoor air pollution, posing significant health risks to the population.

China's status as the world's largest annual greenhouse gas emitter has contributed to global climate change, with far-reaching consequences for public health. The country's emissions have led to rising temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns, impacting water resources and increasing the risk of natural disasters such as floods and droughts.

To address these issues, China has implemented various measures, including emission control policies and a shift towards renewable energy sources. The government has set targets to reduce emissions and increase the use of renewable energy, with a focus on wind, solar, and hydroelectric power. However, the country still faces challenges in balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability.

The impact of fossil fuel use in China has had significant consequences for public health and the environment, and addressing this issue remains a critical priority for the country.

Industrial pollution

China's rapid industrial expansion has contributed to record levels of air pollution. Industrial firms discharge inorganic compounds and toxic gases into the water during production activities, resulting in serious water and air contamination.

In 2012, China adopted the Ambient Air Quality Standard and began developing a national Air Reporting System that now includes 945 sites in 190 cities. These automated stations report hourly data on six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2, O3, and CO.

China's industrial pollution has severe public health consequences. A study by Ebenstein et al. found a high correlation between exposure to air and water-borne pollution and cardiorespiratory mortality rates among Chinese residents. Another study by He et al. showed that a 10% reduction in PM10 concentration in the air reduced life mortality by 8%.

Local authorities collect real-time water and air quality data, but external conditions like wind, precipitation, topography, and river systems can influence the data. Using onsite data that is imprecisely measured and not reflective of true pollution levels at sources could misguide the government's efforts to mitigate pollution problems.

China's industrial pollution sources are widespread but are particularly intense in a northeast corridor that extends from near Shanghai to north of Beijing. Many of the largest emissions appear in or near urban areas, though not all major cities have high pollution levels.

Nitrogen oxides, including NO and NO2, are created when air is heated and have been attributed primarily to transportation fuels, fossil fuel burning in power plants, and industrial facilities. SO2 emissions have been associated mainly with coal burning in power plants and industrial facilities.

China's industrial pollution is a significant problem, and while there have been some improvements, more needs to be done to reduce emissions and improve air quality.

Vehicle emissions

In 2018, the contribution of mobile sources, including vehicles and non-road mobile machinery, to PM2.5 in Beijing was 45%. The number of vehicles in Beijing increased from 2009 to 2019, reaching 6.4 million in 2019, the highest among Chinese cities. During this period, the emissions of carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, and fine particulate matter displayed a clear downward trend, decreasing by 70%, 78%, 51%, and 73%, respectively. However, the contribution of nitrogen oxides emissions from diesel vehicles increased from 35% in 2009 to 56% in 2019, indicating that clean and energy-saving diesel vehicle fleets need further improvement.

In Langfang, a middle-sized city in China, the total vehicle emissions decreased for carbon monoxide but increased for volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, and inhalable particles from 2011 to 2017. From 2018 to 2025, emissions are projected to increase more rapidly in Langfang than in Beijing and Tianjin, indicating that middle-sized cities may become a significant contributor to air pollution in China.

To address vehicle emissions, China has implemented various measures, including the elimination of old and high-emission vehicles, the adoption of electric vehicles, the promotion of public transportation, and the optimization of freight transportation structures. These efforts have resulted in a reduction in vehicle emissions and an improvement in air quality.

However, challenges remain, as the development of new energy vehicles has been slow, and fuel quality standards and vehicle emission standards have not always been upgraded simultaneously. Additionally, the design of road systems and the lack of infrastructure development have contributed to traffic congestion and inefficient transportation systems, further exacerbating vehicle emissions.

Overall, China's efforts to control vehicle emissions and improve air quality are ongoing, and further measures are needed to address the challenges and reduce the impact of vehicle emissions on the environment and public health.

Ozone

In China, ozone pollution has become a severe environmental problem in major cities, with O3 concentrations slightly higher in urban areas than in non-urban areas. From 2014 to 2020, O3 concentrations generally increased, particularly during the summer in northern China and during the autumn or spring in southern China. This increase in O3 pollution is attributed to high anthropogenic emissions from rapid economic development and increased energy demand, resulting in severe O3 pollution in urban areas.

To combat ozone pollution, the Chinese government implemented the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan in 2013-2017 and the Clean Air Action Plan in 2018-2020. These initiatives aimed to reduce anthropogenic emissions and improve air quality. However, while O3 precursors decreased, O3 pollution remained a persistent issue.

Soil pollution

The Chinese government has been working to establish an effective framework for managing soil contamination. Heavy metal contamination is key to the discussion about soil quality, health, and remediation in China. Heavy metals are present naturally in soils, but elevated levels may be derived from agricultural activities, urbanization, industrialization, and other human activities.

In 2019, it was estimated that 20% of China's total arable land is contaminated. Rice in some regions is so heavily polluted with cadmium that it has become toxic. The Chinese government recommended that citizens diversify their rice intake to avoid the toxicity.

The Soil Pollution Control Law was developed in China in response to two situations. The first was when the American embassy in Beijing did its own air monitoring and posted the results online, which prompted Chinese people to ask the government why there was such a large discrepancy between the Chinese government data and the American embassy data. The second situation was a nationwide survey of polluted lands, the data of which was pushed for by a number of NGOs and was eventually released by the environmental ministry in 2014.

China is looking at the polluter-pays principle as their primary goal in implementing regulations under its new soil pollution control law. However, it may be difficult to enforce, as it is often challenging to determine which company polluted, how much, and where.

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