China's Air Pollution: Do Regulations Breathe Life?

China's air pollution problem is severe, widely distributed, and the atmospheric chemical reactions are complex. The country's air pollution situation is unique and vastly different from those of developed countries, which makes finding a solution challenging. China has implemented various regulations to combat air pollution, including the Law on the Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution, issued in 1987, and the Environmental Protection Law, which was first adopted in 1979 and most recently revised in 2014. In addition, China has created a New Energy Vehicle (NEV) credit system and implemented an anti-pollution campaign in 2013 that focused on controlling PM2.5. China has also introduced a pilot project that utilizes big data to detect and address air pollution hotspots. While China has made significant progress in improving its air quality, it still has a long way to go in its battle against air pollution.

China's anti-pollution campaign

China's air pollution situation is severe, widely distributed, and chemically complex. The country has faced an unprecedented environmental health crisis, with ambient PM2.5 pollution causing approximately 1.4 million premature deaths in 2019. In response, China launched an anti-pollution campaign in 2013, which aimed to control PM2.5 levels. This campaign, along with other measures, has resulted in a 50% decrease in PM2.5 concentrations between 2013 and 2019, with further improvements during the Covid era from 2020 to 2022. China now boasts the fastest air quality improvement rate globally, according to a University of Chicago study.

To improve air quality, China has implemented measures such as regulating polluting activities, relocating factories from populated areas, and providing subsidies to farmers to discourage agricultural burning. China has also introduced the New Energy Vehicle (NEV) credit system for passenger car manufacturers and stricter standards for coal plants to reduce coal burning, a dominant source of pollutant emissions. Additionally, China is utilising technology and big data to tackle air pollution, with a pilot project that detects and addresses pollution hotspots.

While China has made significant progress, it is premature to declare victory in its war against pollution. Air quality remains a considerable problem, and further improvements will be challenging. China continues to face severe particulate pollution days (SPPDs) and health impacts from air pollution. However, with its strong policymaking autonomy and effective campaign-style regulations, China remains committed to improving its air quality and addressing the environmental health crisis.

The role of big data

China's air pollution problem has been a cause for worldwide concern. The country's unprecedented environmental health crisis has been attributed mainly to coal burning and industrial production, with vehicle emissions becoming an increasing problem in urban areas.

In 2013, China launched an anti-pollution campaign that focused on controlling PM2.5, deemed the most harmful particulate matter. This campaign halved the average PM2.5 concentration from 72 micrograms per cubic meter in 2013 to 36 μg/m³ in 2019. China continued to improve its air quality during the Covid era (2020-2022), with the annual average concentration of PM2.5 in 339 major cities falling to 29 μg/m³ in 2022.

To sustain these improvements, China has turned to big data analytics to inform future regulations and enforcement. The Chinese government has significantly increased its coverage of air quality monitors, with the number of federal monitoring stations nearly tripling between 2012 and 2020, from 661 to 1,800. This expansion is in addition to the thousands of monitoring stations managed and funded by local governments.

A pilot project in Cangzhou City, located in the polluted Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, aims to unlock the full potential of this data. By crunching data from these monitoring stations, a platform can automatically detect pollution hotspots and notify enforcement officers through a simple app. Within three months of launching, emission sources were detected on 70% of visits to hotspots, a tenfold increase over the previous randomised approach. Over 400 hotspots are now reported each month, demonstrating the effectiveness of hyperlocal air quality monitoring in enforcing air quality regulations.

Big data has also been used to propose process models for developing Big Data Analytics (BDA) capabilities for sustainability. For example, Zhang et al. (2019) incorporated Resource Orchestration Theory (ROT) into the domain of big data, identifying entrepreneurial orientation as a key factor in bundling and orchestrating knowledge assets from big data for value creation.

In summary, big data plays a crucial role in China's ongoing battle against air pollution by providing robust data about pollution sources, enabling targeted regulations, and empowering enforcement officers with real-time information for effective action.

The Environmental Protection Law

The EPL was revised in 2014, with the amendments taking effect on 1 January 2015. The revised EPL contains substantive and procedural changes that significantly update China's environmental legal regime. One notable change is Article 58, which allows qualified social organisations to initiate legal proceedings against polluters on behalf of the public. This has empowered environmental protection social organisations to file public interest litigation against polluting companies.

The EPL also enhances enforcement at the local level by removing arbitrary and outdated limitations on local environmental protection bureaus (EPBs). The new law authorises EPBs to fine violating companies cumulatively, without a ceiling, a departure from the previous practice of one-off fines. This provision ensures that polluters are held accountable and that corrective actions are taken to protect the environment.

In addition to the EPL, China has passed approximately 30 special laws, 90 administrative regulations, and numerous environmental standards over the years. Among them, the Law on Prevention and Control of Air Pollution is the primary law dealing with air pollution. This law includes measures such as environmental impact assessments, emission standards, and pollutant discharge permits to control air pollution from industrial facilities.

China's efforts to combat air pollution have shown positive results. The average annual concentration of PM2.5, the most harmful particulate matter, in 339 major Chinese cities fell to 29 μg/m³ in 2022, and the number of days with good air quality increased. China now boasts the fastest air quality improvement worldwide, according to a University of Chicago study.

Air pollution and health

Air pollution is a major threat to global health and prosperity. It is the presence of one or more contaminants in the atmosphere, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour, in quantities and durations that can be harmful to human health. The primary sources of air pollution in China are coal burning and industrial production, especially in megacities like Beijing and Shanghai, where vehicle emissions are also a significant contributor.

Particulate matter (PM) is a major concern in air pollution, composed of chemicals such as sulfates, nitrates, carbon, or mineral dust. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is particularly harmful as it can be inhaled deeply into the lungs and contribute to serious health problems. PM2.5 accounts for most health effects due to air pollution in the US, and according to the Global Burden of Disease study, it caused approximately 1.4 million premature deaths in China in 2019. Other health effects of air pollution include oxidative stress, inflammation, immunosuppression, and mutagenicity in cells, impacting the lungs, heart, and brain, among other organs. Short-term exposure to higher levels of outdoor air pollution is associated with reduced lung function, asthma, and cardiac problems. Long-term exposure increases the risk of diseases with a longer onset, such as stroke, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cancer.

China has implemented various regulations and standards to address air pollution, including the Law on Prevention and Control of Air Pollution, which provides comprehensive measures on air pollution prevention and control. The country has also created a New Energy Vehicle (NEV) credit system for passenger car manufacturers to encourage the production of more efficient vehicles. These efforts have shown positive results, with a 50% decrease in PM2.5 concentration between 2013 and 2019, and China now boasts the fastest air quality improvement worldwide.

However, it is important to note that the war against pollution is ongoing, and temporary improvements in air quality during mega-events, such as the APEC summit, should not be mistaken for long-term success. China's air pollution situation is severe and widely distributed, and effective control strategies must target all major pollutants from different sources. The success of China's anti-pollution campaign will have a significant impact on global health, with the potential to increase the average life expectancy in the country by 2.2 years if the current pollution reduction trends continue.

Reducing coal usage

China's air pollution situation is severe, and coal combustion is one of the main sources of greenhouse gases and various air pollutants in the country. Reducing coal usage is thus an important strategy for controlling air pollution and achieving carbon neutrality.

In recent years, China has made significant progress in reducing its coal consumption. Coal's share in China's energy mix fell from 64% in 2015 to below 60% in 2018, with renewable energy sources gaining ground. This reduction in coal usage has resulted in a substantial decrease in carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide emissions. For instance, in 2020, China's development and utilization of renewable energy resources resulted in a reduction of these emissions by approximately 1.79 billion tons, 0.86 million tons, and 0.80 million tons, respectively.

To further reduce coal usage, China has implemented various measures. For example, the country has established air pollution control devices (APCDs) in coal-fired power plants to reduce contaminants from flue gas and particulate emissions. Additionally, China has introduced a New Energy Vehicle (NEV) credit system, which requires passenger car manufacturers to earn credits for producing environmentally-friendly vehicles. This system aims to reduce vehicle emissions, which have become an increasing problem in urban areas.

China has also taken steps to phase out outdated production capacities, eliminating 25 million kilowatts of coal-fired power units from 2013 to 2017 and an additional 20 million watts from 2018 to 2020. The country has identified and retired over 660,000 small and polluted enterprises during this period. These efforts have played a significant role in improving air quality and reducing coal usage.

While China has made notable progress in reducing coal usage, the rate of reduction is considered too slow to achieve a sharp decline in emissions. To accelerate their progress, China should continue to develop and utilize renewable energy resources, such as wind power and solar photovoltaic power, and further reduce the construction of coal-fired power plants.

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